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Quality competition and coordination in a VMI supply chain with two risk-averse manufacturers
Independent sales or bundling? Decisions under different market-dominant powers
School of Management and Economics, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu Sichuan 611731, China |
Enterprises are aware that bundling strategies can improve profitability in the highly competitive marketplace. This study evaluates an online to offline (O2O) supply chain system made up of a supplier and an e-retailer who can sell two products independently or bundled through online and offline channels, and discuss the influence of pricing strategy and channel choice on profit under different market-dominant powers. Based on a game theory model, we derive an optimal wholesale price for the supplier, an optimal sale price for the e-retailer, and their respective profit. We demonstrate that a Stackelberg leader is more profitable, irrespective of whether independent sales or bundling are chosen. Regardless of who the leader is, the whole supply chain receive equal profit. For a market leader, independent sales or bundling decisions should be made according to market size. Sensitivity analysis show that as the self-price sensitivity coefficient increases, the profit monotonically decreases for both independent sales and bundling; this occur for both the market dominated by the supplier and that dominated by the e-retailer. For independent sales, as the cross-price sensitivity coefficient increases, the profit monotonically increases; for bundled sales, the profit of the game players is not affected.
References:
[1] |
A. Balakrishnan, S. Sundaresan and B. Zhang,
Browse-and-Switch: Retail-online competition under value uncertainty, Prod. Oper. Management, 23 (2014), 1129-1145.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12165. |
[2] |
M. Banciu and F. Degaard,
Optimal product bundling with dependent valuations: The price of independence, European J. Oper. Res., 255 (2016), 481-495.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.05.022. |
[3] |
H. K. Bhargava,
Retailer-driven product bundling in a distribution channel, Marketing Sci., 31 (2012), 1014-1021.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.1120.0725. |
[4] |
Q. N. Cao, X. J. Geng and J. Zhang,
Strategic role of retailer bundling in a distribution channel, J. Retailing, 91 (2015), 50-67.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretai.2014.10.005. |
[5] |
Q. N. Cao, K. E. Stecke and J. Zhang,
The impact of limited supply on a firm's bundling strategy, Prod. Oper. Management, 24 (2015), 1931-1944.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12388. |
[6] |
W. Cao, B. Jiang and D. M. Zhou,
The effects of demand uncertainty on channel structure, European J. Oper. Res., 207 (2010), 1471-1488.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2010.06.001. |
[7] |
A. Chakravarty, A. Mild and A. Taudes,
Bundling decisions in supply chains, European J. Oper. Res., 231 (2013), 617-630.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2013.06.026. |
[8] |
J. Chen, H. Zhang and Y. Sun,
Implementing coordination contracts in a manufacturer Stackelberg dual-channel supply chain, Omega, 40 (2012), 571-583.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2011.11.005. |
[9] |
Y. C. Chen, S. C. Fang and U. P. Wen,
Pricing policies for substitutable products in a supply chain with Internet and traditional channels, European J. Oper. Res., 224 (2013), 542-551.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2012.09.003. |
[10] |
W. Y. K. Chiang, D. Chhajed and J. D. Hess,
Direct marketing, indirect profits: A strategic analysis of dual-channel supply-chain design, Management Sci., 49 (2003), 1-20.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.49.1.1.12749. |
[11] |
P. K. Chintagunta, J. H. Chu and J. Cebollada,
Quantifying transaction costs in online/off-line grocery channel choice, Marketing Sci., 31 (2012), 96-114.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.1110.0678. |
[12] |
S. C. Choi,
Price competition in a channel structure with a common retailer, Marketing Sci., 10 (1991), 271-296.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.10.4.271. |
[13] |
B. Dan, G. Y. Xu and C. Liu,
Pricing policies in a dual-channel supply chain with retail services, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 139 (2012), 312-320.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2012.05.014. |
[14] |
F. Gao and X. M. Su,
Omnichannel retail operations with buy-online-and-pick-up-in-store, Management Sci., 63 (2016), 1-15.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.2016.2473. |
[15] |
M. Girju, A. Prasad and B. T. Ratchford,
Pure components versus pure bundling in a marketing channel, J. Retailing, 89 (2013), 423-437.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretai.2013.06.001. |
[16] |
U. Gurler, S. Oztop and A. Sen,
Optimal bundle formation and pricing of two products with limited stock, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 118 (2009), 442-462.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2008.11.012. |
[17] |
W. Hanson and R. K. Martin,
Optimal bundle pricing, Management Sci., 36 (1990), 155-174.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.36.2.155. |
[18] |
Y. Y. He, J. Zhang, Q. L. Gou and G. B. Bi,
Supply chain decisions with reference quality effect under the O2O environment, Ann. Oper. Res., 268 (2018), 273-292.
doi: 10.1007/s10479-016-2224-2. |
[19] |
D. Honhon and X. J. A. Pan,
Improving profits by bundling vertically differentiated products, Prod. Oper. Management, 26 (2017), 1481-1497.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12686. |
[20] |
W. Hu and Y. J. Li,
Retail service for mixed retail and e-tail channels, Ann. Oper. Res., 192 (2012), 151-171.
doi: 10.1007/s10479-010-0818-7. |
[21] |
G. W. Hua, S. Y. Wang and T. C. E. Cheng,
Price and lead time decisions in dual-channel supply chains, European Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 205 (2010), 113-126.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2009.12.012. |
[22] |
J. N. Ji, Z. Y. Zhang and L. Yang,
Comparisons of initial carbon allowance allocation rules in an O2O retail supply chain with the cap-and-trade regulation, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 187 (2017), 68-84.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2017.02.011. |
[23] |
Y. C. Jiang, Y. Z. Liu, H. Wang, J. Shang and S. Ding,
Online pricing with bundling and coupon discounts, Internat. J. Prod. Res., 56 (2018), 1773-1788.
doi: 10.1080/00207543.2015.1112443. |
[24] |
Q. H. Lu and N. Liu,
Pricing games of mixed conventional and e-commerce distribution channels, Comput. Industrial Engineering, 64 (2013), 122-132.
doi: 10.1016/j.cie.2012.09.018. |
[25] |
Z. Luo, X. Chen, J. Chen and X. J. Wang,
Optimal pricing policies for differentiated brands under different supply chain power structures, European J. Oper. Res., 259 (2017), 437-451.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.10.046. |
[26] |
Z. Luo, X. Chen and M. Kai,
The effect of customer value and power structure on retail supply chain product choice and pricing decisions, Omega, 77 (2018), 115-126.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2017.06.003. |
[27] |
S. Mayer, R. Klein and S. Seiermann,
A simulation-based approach to price optimisation of the mixed bundling problem with capacity constraints, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 145 (2013), 584-598.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2013.05.014. |
[28] |
A. Mehra, S. Kumar and J. S. Raju,
Competitive strategies for brick-and-mortar stores to counter "showrooming", Management Sci., 64 (2018), 3076-3090.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.2017.2764. |
[29] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Optimal bundling of technological products with network externality, Management Sci., 56 (2010), 2224-2236.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.1100.1259. |
[30] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Product bundling or reserved product pricing? Price discrimination with myopic and strategic consumers, Internat. J. Res. Marketing, 32 (2015), 1-8.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2014.06.004. |
[31] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Temporal product bundling with myopic and strategic consumers: Manifestations and relative effectiveness, Quantitative Marketing Economics, 15 (2017), 341-368.
doi: 10.1007/s11129-017-9189-6. |
[32] |
J. K. Ryan, D. Sun and X. Y. Zhao,
Coordinating a supply chain with a manufacturer-owned online channel: A dual channel model under price competition, IEEE Transac. Engineering Manag., 60 (2013), 247-259.
doi: 10.1109/TEM.2012.2207903. |
[33] |
M. Sarkar and Y. H. Lee,
Optimum pricing strategy for complementary products with reservation price in a supply chain model, J. Ind. Manag. Optim., 13 (2017), 1579-1612.
doi: 10.3934/jimo.2017007. |
[34] |
M. Sheikhzadeh and E. Elahi,
Product bundling: Impacts of product heterogeneity and risk considerations, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 144 (2013), 209-222.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2013.02.006. |
[35] |
W. Wang, G. Li and T. C. E. Cheng,
Channel selection in a supply chain with a multi-channel retailer: The role of channel operating costs, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 173 (2016), 54-65.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.12.004. |
[36] |
J. P. Xie, L. Liang, L. H. Liu and P. Ieromonachou,
Coordination contracts of dual-channel with cooperation advertising in closed-loop supply chains, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 183 (2017), 528-538.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2016.07.026. |
[37] |
R. L. Yan and S. Bandyopadhyay,
The profit benefits of bundle pricing of complementary products, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 18 (2011), 355-361.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2011.04.001. |
[38] |
R. L. Yan, C. Myers, J. Wang and S. Ghose,
Bundling products to success: The influence of complementarity and advertising, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 21 (2014), 48-53.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2013.07.007. |
[39] |
R. L. Yan and Z. Pei,
Retail services and firm profit in a dual-channel market, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 16 (2009), 306-314.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2009.02.006. |
[40] |
D. Q. Yao and J. J. Liu,
Competitive pricing of mixed retail and e-tail distribution channels, Omega, 33 (2005), 235-247.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2004.04.007. |
[41] |
R. Zhang, B. Liu and W. L. Wang,
Pricing decisions in a dual channels system with different power structures, Economic Modelling, 29 (2012), 523-533.
doi: 10.1016/j.econmod.2011.08.024. |
show all references
References:
[1] |
A. Balakrishnan, S. Sundaresan and B. Zhang,
Browse-and-Switch: Retail-online competition under value uncertainty, Prod. Oper. Management, 23 (2014), 1129-1145.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12165. |
[2] |
M. Banciu and F. Degaard,
Optimal product bundling with dependent valuations: The price of independence, European J. Oper. Res., 255 (2016), 481-495.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.05.022. |
[3] |
H. K. Bhargava,
Retailer-driven product bundling in a distribution channel, Marketing Sci., 31 (2012), 1014-1021.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.1120.0725. |
[4] |
Q. N. Cao, X. J. Geng and J. Zhang,
Strategic role of retailer bundling in a distribution channel, J. Retailing, 91 (2015), 50-67.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretai.2014.10.005. |
[5] |
Q. N. Cao, K. E. Stecke and J. Zhang,
The impact of limited supply on a firm's bundling strategy, Prod. Oper. Management, 24 (2015), 1931-1944.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12388. |
[6] |
W. Cao, B. Jiang and D. M. Zhou,
The effects of demand uncertainty on channel structure, European J. Oper. Res., 207 (2010), 1471-1488.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2010.06.001. |
[7] |
A. Chakravarty, A. Mild and A. Taudes,
Bundling decisions in supply chains, European J. Oper. Res., 231 (2013), 617-630.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2013.06.026. |
[8] |
J. Chen, H. Zhang and Y. Sun,
Implementing coordination contracts in a manufacturer Stackelberg dual-channel supply chain, Omega, 40 (2012), 571-583.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2011.11.005. |
[9] |
Y. C. Chen, S. C. Fang and U. P. Wen,
Pricing policies for substitutable products in a supply chain with Internet and traditional channels, European J. Oper. Res., 224 (2013), 542-551.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2012.09.003. |
[10] |
W. Y. K. Chiang, D. Chhajed and J. D. Hess,
Direct marketing, indirect profits: A strategic analysis of dual-channel supply-chain design, Management Sci., 49 (2003), 1-20.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.49.1.1.12749. |
[11] |
P. K. Chintagunta, J. H. Chu and J. Cebollada,
Quantifying transaction costs in online/off-line grocery channel choice, Marketing Sci., 31 (2012), 96-114.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.1110.0678. |
[12] |
S. C. Choi,
Price competition in a channel structure with a common retailer, Marketing Sci., 10 (1991), 271-296.
doi: 10.1287/mksc.10.4.271. |
[13] |
B. Dan, G. Y. Xu and C. Liu,
Pricing policies in a dual-channel supply chain with retail services, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 139 (2012), 312-320.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2012.05.014. |
[14] |
F. Gao and X. M. Su,
Omnichannel retail operations with buy-online-and-pick-up-in-store, Management Sci., 63 (2016), 1-15.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.2016.2473. |
[15] |
M. Girju, A. Prasad and B. T. Ratchford,
Pure components versus pure bundling in a marketing channel, J. Retailing, 89 (2013), 423-437.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretai.2013.06.001. |
[16] |
U. Gurler, S. Oztop and A. Sen,
Optimal bundle formation and pricing of two products with limited stock, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 118 (2009), 442-462.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2008.11.012. |
[17] |
W. Hanson and R. K. Martin,
Optimal bundle pricing, Management Sci., 36 (1990), 155-174.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.36.2.155. |
[18] |
Y. Y. He, J. Zhang, Q. L. Gou and G. B. Bi,
Supply chain decisions with reference quality effect under the O2O environment, Ann. Oper. Res., 268 (2018), 273-292.
doi: 10.1007/s10479-016-2224-2. |
[19] |
D. Honhon and X. J. A. Pan,
Improving profits by bundling vertically differentiated products, Prod. Oper. Management, 26 (2017), 1481-1497.
doi: 10.1111/poms.12686. |
[20] |
W. Hu and Y. J. Li,
Retail service for mixed retail and e-tail channels, Ann. Oper. Res., 192 (2012), 151-171.
doi: 10.1007/s10479-010-0818-7. |
[21] |
G. W. Hua, S. Y. Wang and T. C. E. Cheng,
Price and lead time decisions in dual-channel supply chains, European Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 205 (2010), 113-126.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2009.12.012. |
[22] |
J. N. Ji, Z. Y. Zhang and L. Yang,
Comparisons of initial carbon allowance allocation rules in an O2O retail supply chain with the cap-and-trade regulation, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 187 (2017), 68-84.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2017.02.011. |
[23] |
Y. C. Jiang, Y. Z. Liu, H. Wang, J. Shang and S. Ding,
Online pricing with bundling and coupon discounts, Internat. J. Prod. Res., 56 (2018), 1773-1788.
doi: 10.1080/00207543.2015.1112443. |
[24] |
Q. H. Lu and N. Liu,
Pricing games of mixed conventional and e-commerce distribution channels, Comput. Industrial Engineering, 64 (2013), 122-132.
doi: 10.1016/j.cie.2012.09.018. |
[25] |
Z. Luo, X. Chen, J. Chen and X. J. Wang,
Optimal pricing policies for differentiated brands under different supply chain power structures, European J. Oper. Res., 259 (2017), 437-451.
doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.10.046. |
[26] |
Z. Luo, X. Chen and M. Kai,
The effect of customer value and power structure on retail supply chain product choice and pricing decisions, Omega, 77 (2018), 115-126.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2017.06.003. |
[27] |
S. Mayer, R. Klein and S. Seiermann,
A simulation-based approach to price optimisation of the mixed bundling problem with capacity constraints, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 145 (2013), 584-598.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2013.05.014. |
[28] |
A. Mehra, S. Kumar and J. S. Raju,
Competitive strategies for brick-and-mortar stores to counter "showrooming", Management Sci., 64 (2018), 3076-3090.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.2017.2764. |
[29] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Optimal bundling of technological products with network externality, Management Sci., 56 (2010), 2224-2236.
doi: 10.1287/mnsc.1100.1259. |
[30] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Product bundling or reserved product pricing? Price discrimination with myopic and strategic consumers, Internat. J. Res. Marketing, 32 (2015), 1-8.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2014.06.004. |
[31] |
A. Prasad, R. Venkatesh and V. Mahajan,
Temporal product bundling with myopic and strategic consumers: Manifestations and relative effectiveness, Quantitative Marketing Economics, 15 (2017), 341-368.
doi: 10.1007/s11129-017-9189-6. |
[32] |
J. K. Ryan, D. Sun and X. Y. Zhao,
Coordinating a supply chain with a manufacturer-owned online channel: A dual channel model under price competition, IEEE Transac. Engineering Manag., 60 (2013), 247-259.
doi: 10.1109/TEM.2012.2207903. |
[33] |
M. Sarkar and Y. H. Lee,
Optimum pricing strategy for complementary products with reservation price in a supply chain model, J. Ind. Manag. Optim., 13 (2017), 1579-1612.
doi: 10.3934/jimo.2017007. |
[34] |
M. Sheikhzadeh and E. Elahi,
Product bundling: Impacts of product heterogeneity and risk considerations, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 144 (2013), 209-222.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2013.02.006. |
[35] |
W. Wang, G. Li and T. C. E. Cheng,
Channel selection in a supply chain with a multi-channel retailer: The role of channel operating costs, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 173 (2016), 54-65.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.12.004. |
[36] |
J. P. Xie, L. Liang, L. H. Liu and P. Ieromonachou,
Coordination contracts of dual-channel with cooperation advertising in closed-loop supply chains, Internat. J. Prod. Econ., 183 (2017), 528-538.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2016.07.026. |
[37] |
R. L. Yan and S. Bandyopadhyay,
The profit benefits of bundle pricing of complementary products, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 18 (2011), 355-361.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2011.04.001. |
[38] |
R. L. Yan, C. Myers, J. Wang and S. Ghose,
Bundling products to success: The influence of complementarity and advertising, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 21 (2014), 48-53.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2013.07.007. |
[39] |
R. L. Yan and Z. Pei,
Retail services and firm profit in a dual-channel market, J. Retailing Consumer Services, 16 (2009), 306-314.
doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2009.02.006. |
[40] |
D. Q. Yao and J. J. Liu,
Competitive pricing of mixed retail and e-tail distribution channels, Omega, 33 (2005), 235-247.
doi: 10.1016/j.omega.2004.04.007. |
[41] |
R. Zhang, B. Liu and W. L. Wang,
Pricing decisions in a dual channels system with different power structures, Economic Modelling, 29 (2012), 523-533.
doi: 10.1016/j.econmod.2011.08.024. |







Literature | Selling price | Strategy | Situation |
Gurler et al. [7] | Independent and bundled sales price | Bundle pricing and inventory levels | Inventory constraints and stochastic model |
Prasad et al. [9] | Mixed bundling | Different bundling and network externality | Technological products and network externality |
Sheikhzadeh et al. [17] | Bundled sales price | Pure bundling and independent policy | Product heterogeneity and risk considerations |
Jiang et al. [19] | Online pricing with bundling | Online pricing strategy Coupon discounts | Customer’s purchase preference and coupon |
Prasad et al. [29] | Inter-temporal pricing | Pure components, pure bundling, and mixed bundling | Myopic and strategic consumers |
This study | Independent and bundled sales price | Channel selection, Online and offline sales | E-commerce and differentmarket-dominant powers |
Literature | Selling price | Strategy | Situation |
Gurler et al. [7] | Independent and bundled sales price | Bundle pricing and inventory levels | Inventory constraints and stochastic model |
Prasad et al. [9] | Mixed bundling | Different bundling and network externality | Technological products and network externality |
Sheikhzadeh et al. [17] | Bundled sales price | Pure bundling and independent policy | Product heterogeneity and risk considerations |
Jiang et al. [19] | Online pricing with bundling | Online pricing strategy Coupon discounts | Customer’s purchase preference and coupon |
Prasad et al. [29] | Inter-temporal pricing | Pure components, pure bundling, and mixed bundling | Myopic and strategic consumers |
This study | Independent and bundled sales price | Channel selection, Online and offline sales | E-commerce and differentmarket-dominant powers |
Notation | Explanation |
The supplier's unit wholesale price, where |
|
Unit sale price through e-retailer's offline channel | |
Unit sale price through e-retailer's online channel | |
Unit sale cost through e-retailer's offline channel | |
Unit sale cost through e-retailer's online channel | |
Maximum market size | |
The proportion of offline demand | |
The self-price sensitivity coefficient | |
The cross-price sensitivity coefficient | |
The wholesale price of two bundled products | |
The sale price of two bundled products | |
The sale cost of two bundled products |
Notation | Explanation |
The supplier's unit wholesale price, where |
|
Unit sale price through e-retailer's offline channel | |
Unit sale price through e-retailer's online channel | |
Unit sale cost through e-retailer's offline channel | |
Unit sale cost through e-retailer's online channel | |
Maximum market size | |
The proportion of offline demand | |
The self-price sensitivity coefficient | |
The cross-price sensitivity coefficient | |
The wholesale price of two bundled products | |
The sale price of two bundled products | |
The sale cost of two bundled products |
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