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A coercion-resistant blockchain-based E-voting protocol with receipts
Department of Mathematics, University Of Trento, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy |
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We propose a decentralized e-voting protocol that is coercion-resistant and vote-selling resistant, while being also completely transparent and not receipt-free. We achieve decentralization using blockchain technology. Because of the properties such as transparency, decentralization, and non-repudiation, blockchain is a fundamental technology of great interest in its own right, and it also has large potential when integrated into many other areas. We prove the security of the protocol under the standard DDH assumption on the underlying prime-order cyclic group (e.g. the group of points of an elliptic curve), as well as under standard assumptions on blockchain robustness.
References:
| [1] |
B. Adida,
Helios: Web-based open-audit voting, USENIX Security Symposium, 17 (2008), 335-348.
|
| [2] |
R. Alyoshkin, Polys Whitepaper, Available from: https://docs.polys.me/en/collections/699457-technology-whitepaper. |
| [3] |
E. Androulaki, A. Barger, V. Bortnikov, C. Cachin, K. Christidis, A. De Caro, D. Enyeart, C. Ferris, G. Laventman, Y. Manevich et al., Hyperledger fabric: A distributed operating system for permissioned blockchains, in Proceedings of the Thirteenth EuroSys Conference, ACM, (2018), 1–15.
doi: 10.1145/3190508.3190538. |
| [4] |
L. Babai and S. Moran,
Arthur-merlin games: A randomized proof system, and a hierarchy of complexity class, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 36 (1988), 254-276.
doi: 10.1016/0022-0000(88)90028-1. |
| [5] |
M. Blum, P. Feldman and S. Micali, Non-interactive zero-knowledge and its applications, in Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, STOC, ACM, (1988), 103–112.
doi: 10.1145/62212.62222. |
| [6] |
J.-M. Bohli, J. Müller-Quade and S. Röhrich, Bingo voting: Secure and coercion-free voting using a trusted random number generator, in Proceedings of International Conference on E-Voting and Identity, Springer, 2007,111–124.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-77493-8_10. |
| [7] |
G. Brassard, D. Chaum and C. Crépeau,
Minimum disclosure proofs of knowledge, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 37 (1988), 156-189.
doi: 10.1016/0022-0000(88)90005-0. |
| [8] |
A. Cardillo, N. Akinyokun and A. Essex, Online voting in ontario municipal elections: A conflict of legal principles and technology?, in Electronic Voting (eds. R. Krimmer, M. Volkamer, V. Cortier, B. Beckert, R. Küsters, U. Serdült and D. Duenas-Cid), Springer International Publishing, Cham, (2019), 67–82.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-30625-0_5. |
| [9] |
M. R. Clarkson, S. Chong and A. C. Myers, Civitas: Toward a secure voting system, in Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, SP, IEEE Computer Society, (2008), 354–368
doi: 10.1109/SP.2008.32. |
| [10] |
D. Costa, F. Fiori, P. Milan, M. Sala, A. Vitale and M. Vitale, Quadrans Whitepaper, 2019. Available from: https://quadrans.io/content/files/quadrans-white-paper-rev01.pdf. |
| [11] |
L. Fouard, M. Duclos and P. Lafourcade, Survey on Electronic Voting Schemes, 2007. |
| [12] |
F. Fusco, M. I. Lunesu, F. Pani and A. Pinna, Crypto-voting, a blockchain based e-voting system, in 10th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing, (2018), 223–227.
doi: 10.5220/0006962102230227. |
| [13] |
N. Gailly, P. Jovanovic, B. Ford, J. Lukasiewicz and L. Gammar, Agora: Bringing our Voting Systems into the 21st Century, 2018. |
| [14] |
D. Goswami, United States Postal Service Secure Voting System, US Patent Application Publication, 2020 |
| [15] |
G. Grewal, M. Ryan, S. Bursuc and P. Ryan, Caveat Coercitor: Coercion-Evidence in Electronic Voting, in Proceedings - IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, IEEE, (2013), 367–381.
doi: 10.1109/SP.2013.32. |
| [16] |
S. B. Khairnar, P. S. Naidu and R. Kharat, Secure authentication for online voting system, in 2016 International Conference on Computing Communication Control and automation (ICCUBEA), (2016), 1–4. |
| [17] |
K. Koštál, R. Bencel, M. Ries and I. Kotuliak, Blockchain e-voting done right: Privacy and transparency with public blockchain, in 2019 IEEE 10th International Conference on Software Engineering and Service Science (ICSESS), IEEE, (2019), 592–595. |
| [18] |
H. Li, A. Kankanala and X. Zou, A taxonomy and comparison of remote voting schemes, in Proceedings - International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, ICCCN, IEEE, (2014), 1–8.
doi: 10.1109/ICCCN.2014.6911807. |
| [19] |
Y. Lindell, Tutorials on the Foundations of Cryptography, Chapter How to Simulate It – A Tutorial on the Simulation Proof Technique, Springer, 2017. |
| [20] |
R. Longo, Formal Proofs of Security for Privacy-Preserving Blockchains and other Cryptographic Protocols, PhD thesis, University Of Trento, Department of Mathematics, 2018. |
| [21] |
P. McCorry, S. Shahandashti and F. Hao, A smart contract for boardroom voting with maximum voter privacy, in 21st International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (FC17), Sliema, Malta, (2017), 357–375. |
| [22] |
A. Meneghetti, M. Sala and D. Taufer, A Survey on PoW-based Consensus, Annals of Emerging Technologies in Computing (AETiC), 4, 11 pp.
doi: 10.33166/AETiC.2020.01.002. |
| [23] |
A. Rea, A. F. D. Kronovet and J. du Rose, Colony Technical Whitepaper, 2020. Available from: https://colony.io/whitepaper.pdf. |
| [24] |
C. Schnorr,
Efficient signature generation by smart cards, Journal of Cryptology, 4 (1991), 161-174.
|
| [25] |
V. Shoup and J. Alwen, $\Sigma$-Protocols Continued and Introduction to Zero Knowledge, 2007. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20170830043326/https://cs.nyu.edu/courses/spring07/G22.3220-001/lec3.pdf. |
| [26] |
C. Spadafora, A New Blockchain-Based Secure E-Voting Protocol, Master's thesis, University of Trento, Department of Mathematics, Academic Year 2018/2019. |
| [27] |
C. Spadafora, R. Longo and M. Sala, Coercion-Resistant Blockchain-Based E-Voting Protocol, Cryptology ePrint Archive, Report 2020/674 version 20200605: 195929, 2020. Available from: https://eprint.iacr.org/eprint-bin/getfile.pl?entry=2020/674&version=20200605:195929&file=674.pdf. |
| [28] |
M. A. Specter, J. Koppel and D. Weitnzer, The ballot is busted before the blockchain: A security analysis of voatz, the first internet voting application used in us federal elections, Preprint, Available at: https://internetpolicy.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/SecurityAnalysisOfVoatz_Public.pdf. |
| [29] |
F. D. Team, Introducing a Secure and Transparent Online Voting Solution for Modern Age: Follow My Vote, Available from: https://followmyvote.com/. |
| [30] |
V. D. Team, Vocdoni Documentation, Available from: https://docs.vocdoni.io/. |
| [31] |
K.-H. Wang, S. K. Mondal, K. Chan and X. Xie,
A review of contemporary e-voting: Requirements, technology, systems and usability, Data Science and Pattern Recognition, 1 (2017), 31-47.
|
| [32] |
S. Xiao, X. A. Wang, W. Wang and H. Wang, Survey on blockchain-based electronic voting, in Advances in Intelligent Networking and Collaborative Systems (eds. L. Barolli, H. Nishino and H. Miwa), Springer, (2020), 559–567.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-29035-1_54. |
show all references
References:
| [1] |
B. Adida,
Helios: Web-based open-audit voting, USENIX Security Symposium, 17 (2008), 335-348.
|
| [2] |
R. Alyoshkin, Polys Whitepaper, Available from: https://docs.polys.me/en/collections/699457-technology-whitepaper. |
| [3] |
E. Androulaki, A. Barger, V. Bortnikov, C. Cachin, K. Christidis, A. De Caro, D. Enyeart, C. Ferris, G. Laventman, Y. Manevich et al., Hyperledger fabric: A distributed operating system for permissioned blockchains, in Proceedings of the Thirteenth EuroSys Conference, ACM, (2018), 1–15.
doi: 10.1145/3190508.3190538. |
| [4] |
L. Babai and S. Moran,
Arthur-merlin games: A randomized proof system, and a hierarchy of complexity class, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 36 (1988), 254-276.
doi: 10.1016/0022-0000(88)90028-1. |
| [5] |
M. Blum, P. Feldman and S. Micali, Non-interactive zero-knowledge and its applications, in Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, STOC, ACM, (1988), 103–112.
doi: 10.1145/62212.62222. |
| [6] |
J.-M. Bohli, J. Müller-Quade and S. Röhrich, Bingo voting: Secure and coercion-free voting using a trusted random number generator, in Proceedings of International Conference on E-Voting and Identity, Springer, 2007,111–124.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-77493-8_10. |
| [7] |
G. Brassard, D. Chaum and C. Crépeau,
Minimum disclosure proofs of knowledge, Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 37 (1988), 156-189.
doi: 10.1016/0022-0000(88)90005-0. |
| [8] |
A. Cardillo, N. Akinyokun and A. Essex, Online voting in ontario municipal elections: A conflict of legal principles and technology?, in Electronic Voting (eds. R. Krimmer, M. Volkamer, V. Cortier, B. Beckert, R. Küsters, U. Serdült and D. Duenas-Cid), Springer International Publishing, Cham, (2019), 67–82.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-30625-0_5. |
| [9] |
M. R. Clarkson, S. Chong and A. C. Myers, Civitas: Toward a secure voting system, in Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, SP, IEEE Computer Society, (2008), 354–368
doi: 10.1109/SP.2008.32. |
| [10] |
D. Costa, F. Fiori, P. Milan, M. Sala, A. Vitale and M. Vitale, Quadrans Whitepaper, 2019. Available from: https://quadrans.io/content/files/quadrans-white-paper-rev01.pdf. |
| [11] |
L. Fouard, M. Duclos and P. Lafourcade, Survey on Electronic Voting Schemes, 2007. |
| [12] |
F. Fusco, M. I. Lunesu, F. Pani and A. Pinna, Crypto-voting, a blockchain based e-voting system, in 10th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing, (2018), 223–227.
doi: 10.5220/0006962102230227. |
| [13] |
N. Gailly, P. Jovanovic, B. Ford, J. Lukasiewicz and L. Gammar, Agora: Bringing our Voting Systems into the 21st Century, 2018. |
| [14] |
D. Goswami, United States Postal Service Secure Voting System, US Patent Application Publication, 2020 |
| [15] |
G. Grewal, M. Ryan, S. Bursuc and P. Ryan, Caveat Coercitor: Coercion-Evidence in Electronic Voting, in Proceedings - IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, IEEE, (2013), 367–381.
doi: 10.1109/SP.2013.32. |
| [16] |
S. B. Khairnar, P. S. Naidu and R. Kharat, Secure authentication for online voting system, in 2016 International Conference on Computing Communication Control and automation (ICCUBEA), (2016), 1–4. |
| [17] |
K. Koštál, R. Bencel, M. Ries and I. Kotuliak, Blockchain e-voting done right: Privacy and transparency with public blockchain, in 2019 IEEE 10th International Conference on Software Engineering and Service Science (ICSESS), IEEE, (2019), 592–595. |
| [18] |
H. Li, A. Kankanala and X. Zou, A taxonomy and comparison of remote voting schemes, in Proceedings - International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, ICCCN, IEEE, (2014), 1–8.
doi: 10.1109/ICCCN.2014.6911807. |
| [19] |
Y. Lindell, Tutorials on the Foundations of Cryptography, Chapter How to Simulate It – A Tutorial on the Simulation Proof Technique, Springer, 2017. |
| [20] |
R. Longo, Formal Proofs of Security for Privacy-Preserving Blockchains and other Cryptographic Protocols, PhD thesis, University Of Trento, Department of Mathematics, 2018. |
| [21] |
P. McCorry, S. Shahandashti and F. Hao, A smart contract for boardroom voting with maximum voter privacy, in 21st International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (FC17), Sliema, Malta, (2017), 357–375. |
| [22] |
A. Meneghetti, M. Sala and D. Taufer, A Survey on PoW-based Consensus, Annals of Emerging Technologies in Computing (AETiC), 4, 11 pp.
doi: 10.33166/AETiC.2020.01.002. |
| [23] |
A. Rea, A. F. D. Kronovet and J. du Rose, Colony Technical Whitepaper, 2020. Available from: https://colony.io/whitepaper.pdf. |
| [24] |
C. Schnorr,
Efficient signature generation by smart cards, Journal of Cryptology, 4 (1991), 161-174.
|
| [25] |
V. Shoup and J. Alwen, $\Sigma$-Protocols Continued and Introduction to Zero Knowledge, 2007. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20170830043326/https://cs.nyu.edu/courses/spring07/G22.3220-001/lec3.pdf. |
| [26] |
C. Spadafora, A New Blockchain-Based Secure E-Voting Protocol, Master's thesis, University of Trento, Department of Mathematics, Academic Year 2018/2019. |
| [27] |
C. Spadafora, R. Longo and M. Sala, Coercion-Resistant Blockchain-Based E-Voting Protocol, Cryptology ePrint Archive, Report 2020/674 version 20200605: 195929, 2020. Available from: https://eprint.iacr.org/eprint-bin/getfile.pl?entry=2020/674&version=20200605:195929&file=674.pdf. |
| [28] |
M. A. Specter, J. Koppel and D. Weitnzer, The ballot is busted before the blockchain: A security analysis of voatz, the first internet voting application used in us federal elections, Preprint, Available at: https://internetpolicy.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/SecurityAnalysisOfVoatz_Public.pdf. |
| [29] |
F. D. Team, Introducing a Secure and Transparent Online Voting Solution for Modern Age: Follow My Vote, Available from: https://followmyvote.com/. |
| [30] |
V. D. Team, Vocdoni Documentation, Available from: https://docs.vocdoni.io/. |
| [31] |
K.-H. Wang, S. K. Mondal, K. Chan and X. Xie,
A review of contemporary e-voting: Requirements, technology, systems and usability, Data Science and Pattern Recognition, 1 (2017), 31-47.
|
| [32] |
S. Xiao, X. A. Wang, W. Wang and H. Wang, Survey on blockchain-based electronic voting, in Advances in Intelligent Networking and Collaborative Systems (eds. L. Barolli, H. Nishino and H. Miwa), Springer, (2020), 559–567.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-29035-1_54. |
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