A predator-prey model with cooperative hunting in the predator and group defense in the prey

Yanfei Du; Ben Niu; Junjie Wei

doi:10.3934/dcdsb.2021298

Article Contents

2022, Volume 27, Issue 10: 5845-5881. Doi: 10.3934/dcdsb.2021298

This issue Previous Article Orbital dynamics on invariant sets of contact Hamiltonian systems Next Article The cyclicity of a class of quadratic reversible centers defining elliptic curves

A predator-prey model with cooperative hunting in the predator and group defense in the prey

1.
School of Mathematics, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
2.
School of Mathematics & Data Science, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
3.
Department of Mathematics, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China
4.
School of Science, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China

^*Corresponding author: Ben Niu
^*Corresponding author: Ben Niu

Received: July 2021

Revised: November 2021

Early access: December 2021

Published: October 2022

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Abstract

In this paper we propose a predator-prey model with a non-differentiable functional response in which the prey exhibits group defense and the predator exhibits cooperative hunting. There is a separatrix curve dividing the phase portrait. The species with initial population above the separatrix result in extinction of prey in finite time, and the species with initial population below it can coexist, oscillate sustainably or leave the prey surviving only. Detailed bifurcation analysis is carried out to explore the effect of cooperative hunting in the predator and aggregation in the prey on the existence and stability of the coexistence state as well as the dynamics of system. The model undergoes transcritical bifurcation, Hopf bifurcation, homoclinic (heteroclinic) bifurcation, saddle-node bifurcation, and Bogdanov-Takens bifurcation, and through numerical simulations it is found that it possesses rich dynamics including bubble loop of limit cycles, and open ended branch of periodic orbits disappearing through a homoclinic cycle or a loop of heteroclinic orbits. Also, a continuous transition of different types of Hopf branches are investigated which forms a global picture of Hopf bifurcation in the model.

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Mathematics Subject Classification: Primary: 34C23, 34C60; Secondary: 92D25.

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Figure 1. When $ (\frac{1}{\beta})^{\frac{1}{\alpha}}<K $, there is a unique interior equilibrium

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Figure 2. a) Bifurcation diagram of system (2) with $ r = 0.7,K = 4,\alpha = 0.5,\beta = 0.7 $. b) The period of the limit cycles. c) When $ c = 0.3>c_H $, $ E^* $ loses its stability, and there is a limit cycle. d) When $ c = c_{het} = 0.432 $, there is a loop of heteroclinic orbits

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Figure 3. If $ (\frac{1}{\beta})^{\frac{1}{\alpha}} >K $, the black curve is the left side of Eq. (8), the blue ones denote the right side of Eq. (8) with three different $ c $ values

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Figure 4. a) Bifurcation diagram of system (2) with $ r = 2,K = 4,\alpha = 0.5,\beta = 0.35 $. b) When $ c = c_{hom} = 1.662 $, there is a homoclinic cycle

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Figure 5. a) The diagram of $ u- $nullclines with $ \alpha_1<\alpha_2 $. b) The diagram of $ v- $nullclines with $ \alpha_1<\alpha_2 $

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Figure 6. The diagrams of $ u- $nullclines and $ v- $nullclines for different values of $ \alpha $ for a) case (Ⅰ-ⅰa); b) case (Ⅰ-ⅰb); c) case (Ⅰ-ⅰc) and d) case (Ⅰ-ⅱ)

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Figure 7. Choose $ r = 2, K = 2, c = 2, \beta = 0.7 $ for case (I-ia). a) The bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $. b) When $ \alpha = \alpha_{het} = 0.688 $, there is a loop of heteroclinic orbits

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Figure 8. Choose $ r = 2, K = 1.2, c = 2, \beta = 0.7 $ for case (I-ia). a) The bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $. b) When $ \alpha = 0.41 $, there is a homoclinic cycle

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Figure 9. Choose $ r = 2, K = 1.2, c = 1.5, \beta = 0.7 $ for case (I-ib). a) The bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $. b) When $ \alpha = 0.26 $, there is a homoclinic cycle

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Figure 10. Choose $ r = 1.7, K = 7, c = 0.3, \beta = 0.7 $ for case (I-ic). a) The bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $. b) When $ \alpha = 0.86 $, there is a loop of heteroclinic orbits

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Figure 11. The bifurcation diagram for case (I-ii) choosing $ K = 4,c = 0.3,\beta = 0.7 $ and a) $ r = 0.7 $; b) $ r = 1.033 $; c) $ r = 1.05 $ d) $ r = 1.4 $

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Figure 12. a) The diagram of $ u- $nullclines and $ v- $nullclines for different $ \alpha $ ($ \alpha_1<\alpha_2 $) when $ K>1,\beta>1 $ (case Ⅱ). b) Bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $ with $ r = 1.7, K = 2.1, c = 0.7, \beta = 1.1 $. c) Choosing $ r = 1.7, K = 2.1, c = 0.7, \beta = 1.1 $, there is a loop of heteroclinic orbits when $ \alpha = 0.735 $

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Figure 13. a) The bifurcation diagram for case (Ⅲ-ⅰ) with $ r = 1, K = 0.8,c = 3, \beta = 1.3 $. b) When $ \alpha = 0.63 $, there is a loop of heteroclinic orbits

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Figure 14. a) The diagram of $ u- $nullclines and $ v- $nullclines for different values of $ \alpha $ when $ K<1,\beta>1, \frac{1}{\beta}>K $ (case Ⅲ-ⅱ). b) The bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $ with $ r = 1, K = 0.5,c = 3, \beta = 1.2 $. c) Choosing $ r = 1, K = 0.5,c = 3, \beta = 1.2 $, there is a homoclinic cycle when $ \alpha = 0.3899 $

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Figure 15. a) The diagram of $ u- $nullclines and $ v- $nullclines for different values of $ \alpha $ when $ K<1,\beta<1 $ (case (Ⅳ-ⅰ)). b) Bifurcation diagram of $ \alpha-u-v $ with $ r = 2, K = 0.8, c = 2, \beta = 0.9 $. c) Choose $ r = 2, K = 0.8, c = 2, \beta = 0.9 $, there is a homoclinic cycle when $ \alpha = 0.4065 $

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Figure 16. The bifurcation set near Bogdanov-Takens bifurcation point BT with $ r = 2, K = 4, \beta = 0.35 $

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Table 1. Main results for system (2) taking $ c $ as bifurcation parameter

$ Case $	$ \begin{array}{l} Interior \;equilibria \end{array} $		$ \begin{array}{l} Type \; of \;bifurcation \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} Shape\; of\; Hopf \;branch \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} Periodic \;orbits\; disappear \;through \end{array} $	$ Figure $
$ (\frac{1}{\beta})^{\frac{1}{\alpha}}<K $	$ one $		$ \begin{array}{l} Hopf \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} open \; ended \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} a \; loop \; of \;heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array} $	Figure 1 Figure 2
$ (\frac{1}{\beta})^{\frac{1}{\alpha}}>K $	$ \begin{array}{ll} c>c_{sn}\\ c=c_{sn} \\ c<c_{sn}\end{array} $	two one none	$ \begin{array}{l} saddle-node \;Hopf \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} open \; ended \end{array} $	$ \begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array} $	Figure 4

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Table 2. Main results for system (2) taking $ \alpha $ as bifurcation parameter when $ K\neq 1 $ and $ \beta\neq 1 $

$ Case$	$Condition$	$\begin{array}{l} Interior \;equilibria \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Type\; of \;Bifurcation \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Shape\; of\; Hopf\; branch \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Periodic \;orbits \; disappear \; through \end{array}$	Figure
$ Case \; (I-ia)$	$\begin{array}{l} K>1, \beta<1\\c>c_2 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} 0<\alpha<\alpha_T \;\;E_1^, E_2^ \\ \alpha>\alpha_T \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;E_1^*\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Hopf \; transcritical \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle\; or\; a \;loop\; of\; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$	Figure 6 a) Figure 7 Figure 8
$Case \; (I-ib)$	$\begin{array}{l} K>1, \beta<1\\c_1<c<c_2, \\K<2 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} 0<\alpha<\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \\ \alpha>\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;none \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node \; Hopf \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array}$	Figure 6 b) Figure 9
$Case \; (I-ic)$	$\begin{array}{l} K>1, \beta<1\\c_1<c<c_2, \\K>2 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} 0<\alpha<\alpha_T\;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \\ \alpha>\alpha_T\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Hopf \; transcritical \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a \;loop \; of \; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$	Figure 6 c) Figure 10
$Case \; (I-ii)$	$\begin{array}{l} K>1, \beta<1\\c<c_1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha<\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;none\\ \alpha_{sn}<\alpha<\alpha_T \;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \\ \alpha>\alpha_T \;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node \; Hopf \; transcritical \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a \;bubble; \;or open\; ended(two \;branches)\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} an \; equilibrium; \;or a\; homoclinic \;cycle \; or \; a \;loop \; of \; heteroclinic \; orbits \end{array}$	Figure 6 d) Figure 11
$Case \;(II)$	$K>1, \beta>1$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha<\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;none\\\alpha>\alpha_s \;\;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$Hopf$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} \; a \;loop \; of \; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$	Figure 12
$Case \;(III-i)$	$\begin{array}{l} K<1, \beta>1\\\frac{1}{\beta}<K \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha<\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;none\\\alpha>\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$Hopf$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a \;loop \; of \; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$	Figure 13
$ Case \; (III-ii)$	$\begin{array}{l} K<1, \beta>1\\\frac{1}{\beta}>K \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha<\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;none \\ \alpha_s<\alpha<\alpha_T \;\;\;\;E_1^* \\ \alpha_T<\alpha<\alpha_{sn}\;\;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \\ \alpha>\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;none \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node \;\\ Hopf \; \\transcritical \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array}$	Figure 14
$Case \; (IV-i)$	$\begin{array}{l} K<1, \beta<1\\c>c_1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha>\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;none\\ 0<\alpha<\alpha_{sn}\;\;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node \; \\ Hopf \; \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array}$	Figure 15
$ Case \; (IV-ii)$	$\begin{array}{l} K<1, \beta<1\\c<c_1 \end{array}$	$none$	$none$	$none$	$none$	$none$

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Table 3. Main results for system (2) taking $ \alpha $ as bifurcation parameter when $ K = 1 $ or $ \beta = 1 $

$ Case$	$Condition$	$\begin{array}{l} Interior \;equilibria \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Type\; of\\Bifurcation \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Shape\; of\; Hopf\;branch \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Periodic \;orbits \; disappear \;through \end{array}$
$Case \;(V)$	$\begin{array}{l} K=1, \beta>1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha<\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;none\\\alpha>\alpha_s\;\;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$Hopf$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a \;loop\;of\; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$
$Case \; (VI-i)$	$\begin{array}{l} K=1, \beta<1\\c>c_1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha>\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;none\\ 0 <\alpha<\alpha_{sn}\;\;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node\; \\ Hopf \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array}$
$Case \; (VI-ii)$	$\begin{array}{l} K=1, \beta<1\\c<c_1 \end{array}$	$none$	$none$	$none$	$none$
$ Case \; (VII)$	$\begin{array}{l} K>1, \beta=1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha>0\;\;\;\;\;E_1^* \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} Hopf \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended\end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \; or \; a \;loop \; of \; heteroclinic \;orbits \end{array}$
$Case \; ( VIII)$	$\begin{array}{l} K<1, \beta=1 \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{ll} \alpha>\alpha_{sn} \;\;\;\;\;none\\ 0 <\alpha<\alpha_{sn}\;\;\;\;\;E_1^, E_2^ \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} saddle-node\;Hopf \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} open\; ended \end{array}$	$\begin{array}{l} a\; homoclinic \;cycle \end{array}$

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