\`x^2+y_1+z_12^34\`
Advanced Search
Article Contents
Article Contents

Optimal stopping via randomized neural networks

  • *Corresponding author: Josef Teichmann

    *Corresponding author: Josef Teichmann
Abstract / Introduction Full Text(HTML) Figure(5) / Table(19) Related Papers Cited by
  • This paper presents the benefits of using randomized neural networks instead of standard basis functions or deep neural networks to approximate the solutions of optimal stopping problems. The key idea is to use neural networks, where the parameters of the hidden layers are generated randomly, and only the last layer is trained, in order to approximate the continuation value. Our approaches are applicable to high dimensional problems where the existing approaches become increasingly impractical. In addition, since our approaches can be optimized using simple linear regression, they are easy to implement, and theoretical guarantees can be provided. We test our approaches for American option pricing on Black–Scholes, Heston and rough Heston models and for optimally stopping fractional Brownian motion. In all cases, our algorithms outperform the state-of-the-art and other relevant machine learning approaches in terms of computation time while achieving comparable results. Moreover, we show that they can also be used to efficiently compute Greeks of American options.

    Mathematics Subject Classification: Primary: 60G40; Secondary: 68T07.

    Citation:

    \begin{equation} \\ \end{equation}
  • 加载中
  • Figure 1.  At-the-money max call option without dividend on Heston

    Figure 2.  At-the-money max call option with dividend on Black–Scholes

    Figure 3.  Mean $ \pm $ standard deviation (bars) of the price for a max call on 5 stocks following the Black–Scholes model for RLSM (left) and RFQI (right) for varying the number of paths $ m $ and varying for RLSM the number of neurons in the hidden layer $ K $

    Figure 4.  Top left: algorithms processing path information outperform. Top right: reinforcement learning algorithms do not work well in non-Markovian cases. Bottom: RRLSM achieves similar results as reported in [10], while using only 20K paths instead of 4M for training, which took only $ 1 s $ instead of the reported $ 430 s $

    Figure 5.  Median of the price and Greeks computed with RLSM plotted against the spot price $ x_0 $ for different volatilities $ \sigma $ and maturities $ T $. The price, delta and gamma are computed with the regression method with $ \epsilon = 5 $ and a polynomial basis up to degree $ 2 $

    Table 1.  Max call option on Black—Scholes for different number of stocks $d$ and varying initial stock price $ x_0$

    price duration
    d $ x_0$ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP
    5 80 5.23 (0.07) 5.12 (0.12) 5.19 (0.09) 5.28 (0.12) 5.26 (0.10) 5.20 (0.06) 5.31 (0.05) 11s 9s 0s 0s 2s 0s 0s
    100 24.95 (0.14) 24.64 (0.21) 24.72 (0.15) 24.91 (0.16) 24.96 (0.17) 25.00 (0.19) 24.97 (0.15) 11s 8s 2s 0s 2s 0s 0s
    120 49.73 (0.21) 49.45 (0.18) 49.47 (0.22) 49.62 (0.25) 49.68 (0.22) 49.75 (0.17) 49.77 (0.15) 11s 7s 2s 0s 2s 0s 0s
    10 80 9.20 (0.07) 9.19 (0.14) 8.82 (0.15) 9.24 (0.11) 9.25 (0.12) 9.25 (0.10) 9.27 (0.09) 28s 7s 1s 0s 6s 0s 0s
    100 34.33 (0.15) 34.03 (0.17) 33.69 (0.20) 34.28 (0.11) 34.25 (0.19) 34.17 (0.11) 34.26 (0.09) 29s 7s 2s 0s 7s 0s 0s
    120 60.94 (0.24) 60.90 (0.20) 60.33 (0.25) 61.08 (0.23) 61.10 (0.19) 61.07 (0.21) 61.20 (0.13) 29s 7s 2s 0s 6s 0s 0s
    50 80 22.45 (0.11) 23.17 (0.10) 21.78 (0.34) 22.03 (0.16) 23.51 (0.13) 23.42 (0.11) 23.52 (0.09) 8m39s 8s 2s 0s 6m28s 1s 0s
    100 53.49 (0.10) 53.93 (0.12) 52.15 (0.60) 52.44 (0.21) 54.24 (0.09) 54.23 (0.08) 54.37 (0.09) 8m42s 8s 3s 0s 6m57s 1s 0s
    120 84.31 (0.12) 84.72 (0.12) 82.48 (0.79) 82.98 (0.16) 85.03 (0.18) 85.00 (0.20) 85.28 (0.07) 8m46s 9s 3s 0s 7m 4s 1s 0s
    100 80 24.02 (0.21) 29.56 (0.13) 27.08 (0.47) 28.50 (0.06) 29.59 (0.15) 29.88 (0.08) 29.95 (0.08) 39m44s 13s 3s 0s 1h23m39s 1s 0s
    100 56.83 (0.18) 61.84 (0.26) 58.99 (0.62) 60.58 (0.10) 62.07 (0.15) 62.32 (0.16) 62.43 (0.08) 40m42s 13s 4s 0s 1h23m28s 1s 0s
    120 88.05 (0.31) 94.26 (0.16) 90.48 (0.89) 92.71 (0.08) 94.41 (0.17) 94.65 (0.14) 94.99 (0.14) 40m25s 13s 4s 0s 1h22m15s 1s 0s
    500 80 - 42.54 (0.16) 39.45 (0.61) 43.00 (0.07) - 44.15 (0.09) 44.34 (0.08) - 53s 11s 1s - 1s 0s
    100 - 78.27 (0.16) 74.23 (1.03) 78.80 (0.10) - 80.21 (0.13) 80.45 (0.08) - 53s 12s 1s - 1s 0s
    120 - 113.83 (0.18) 108.60 (1.01) 114.54 (0.09) - 116.26 (0.19) 116.48 (0.11) - 53s 12s 1s - 1s 0s
    1000 80 - 47.91 (0.08) 45.37 (0.91) 49.13 (0.11) - 50.14 (0.10) 50.32 (0.07) - 1m34s 20s 2s - 1s 0s
    100 - 84.99 (0.19) 81.06 (0.56) 86.40 (0.08) - 87.70 (0.09) 87.93 (0.08) - 1m35s 20s 3s - 1s 0s
    120 - 121.98 (0.11) 118.61 (1.31) 123.68 (0.08) - 125.19 (0.14) 125.48 (0.09) - 1m36s 19s 2s - 1s 0s
    2000 80 - 53.14 (0.13) 51.45 (0.82) 55.13 (0.09) - 56.03 (0.04) 56.27 (0.07) - 2m57s 34s 5s - 2s 0s
    100 - 91.43 (0.13) 89.84 (0.67) 93.87 (0.12) - 95.00 (0.14) 95.31 (0.06) - 3m 2s 39s 5s - 2s 0s
    120 - 129.77 (0.15) 127.14 (1.30) 132.69 (0.15) - 134.09 (0.08) 134.34 (0.10) - 2m57s 37s 4s - 2s 0s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 2.  Max call option on Heston (with variance) for different numbers of stocks $ d $

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP
    5 8.34 (0.08) 8.36 (0.07) 8.22 (0.09) 8.37 (0.07) 8.25 (0.03) 8.33 (0.07) 8.23 (0.04) 31s 6s 3s 0s 8s 0s 0s
    10 11.81 (0.06) 11.83 (0.07) 11.51 (0.12) 11.83 (0.02) 11.79 (0.06) 11.83 (0.05) 11.79 (0.07) 1m30s 6s 3s 0s 28s 0s 0s
    50 16.85 (0.07) 20.01 (0.06) 18.60 (0.32) 19.31 (0.05) 20.05 (0.06) 20.09 (0.05) 20.04 (0.04) 39m37s 8s 4s 0s 1h22m45s 1s 0s
    100 - 23.49 (0.06) 21.75 (0.41) 22.90 (0.02) - 23.69 (0.06) 23.66 (0.04) - 14s 6s 0s - 1s 0s
    500 - 31.31 (0.06) 29.93 (0.32) 31.35 (0.06) - 32.14 (0.06) 32.13 (0.07) - 1m19s 24s 3s - 2s 0s
    1000 - 34.23 (0.08) 33.79 (0.29) 35.09 (0.06) - 35.82 (0.06) 35.86 (0.04) - 2m59s 41s 6s - 4s 0s
    2000 - 35.18 (0.14) 37.76 (0.23) 38.84 (0.05) - 39.63 (0.08) 39.60 (0.05) - 13m11s 1m28s 13s - 7s 0s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 3.  Basket call options on Black–Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP
    5 3.60 (0.05) 3.57 (0.05) 3.49 (0.06) 3.58 (0.03) 3.61 (0.03) 3.62 (0.06) 3.59 (0.02) 13s 6s 2s 0s 2s 0s 0s
    10 2.54 (0.04) 2.52 (0.03) 2.45 (0.06) 2.54 (0.04) 2.53 (0.03) 2.53 (0.03) 2.54 (0.01) 30s 6s 1s 0s 7s 0s 0s
    50 0.94 (0.01) 1.12 (0.01) 0.83 (0.03) 1.06 (0.01) 1.13 (0.01) 1.15 (0.01) 1.14 (0.01) 8m51s 8s 1s 0s 7m 3s 1s 0s
    100 0.51 (0.01) 0.78 (0.01) 0.55 (0.01) 0.75 (0.01) 0.80 (0.01) 0.81 (0.01) 0.81 (0.01) 38m59s 13s 2s 0s 1h21m59s 1s 0s
    500 - 0.33 (0.01) 0.24 (0.00) 0.34 (0.00) - 0.36 (0.00) 0.36 (0.00) - 1m 7s 7s 1s - 1s 0s
    1000 - 0.22 (0.00) 0.17 (0.00) 0.24 (0.00) - 0.25 (0.00) 0.26 (0.00) - 2m24s 14s 2s - 2s 0s
    2000 - 0.13 (0.00) 0.12 (0.01) 0.17 (0.00) - 0.18 (0.00) 0.18 (0.00) - 5m35s 25s 7s - 3s 0s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 4.  Geometric put options on Black–Scholes and Heston (with variance) for different numbers of stocks $ d $. Here, $ r = 2\% $ is used as interest rate

    price duration
    model d LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI B LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI B
    BlackScholes 5 3.34 (0.04) 3.31 (0.03) 3.29 (0.06) 3.33 (0.04) 3.31 (0.05) 3.35 (0.04) 3.35 (nan) 11s 6s 1s 0s 2s 0s 3m12s
    10 2.37 (0.04) 2.42 (0.02) 2.33 (0.02) 2.40 (0.04) 2.39 (0.03) 2.40 (0.03) 2.40 (nan) 28s 6s 1s 0s 7s 0s 3m12s
    20 1.65 (0.02) 1.71 (0.04) 1.57 (0.04) 1.65 (0.03) 1.73 (0.04) 1.72 (0.02) 1.71 (nan) 1m31s 6s 1s 0s 32s 1s 3m12s
    50 0.91 (0.01) 1.07 (0.02) 0.80 (0.02) 1.03 (0.01) 1.09 (0.02) 1.09 (0.02) 1.09 (nan) 8m26s 10s 2s 0s 7m24s 1s 3m31s
    100 0.50 (0.01) 0.76 (0.01) 0.54 (0.01) 0.73 (0.01) 0.77 (0.01) 0.77 (0.01) 0.78 (nan) 38m37s 16s 2s 0s 1h23m50s 1s 3m31s
    Heston 5 2.45 (0.03) 2.44 (0.03) 2.30 (0.06) 2.44 (0.02) 2.44 (0.04) 2.43 (0.03) - 11s 6s 1s 0s 2s 0s -
    10 2.00 (0.02) 2.00 (0.02) 1.75 (0.04) 2.00 (0.03) 2.00 (0.02) 2.01 (0.02) - 29s 6s 2s 0s 7s 0s -
    20 1.68 (0.02) 1.69 (0.02) 1.21 (0.05) 1.62 (0.05) 1.72 (0.02) 1.71 (0.01) - 1m31s 7s 2s 0s 32s 1s -
    50 1.33 (0.02) 1.47 (0.01) 0.83 (0.03) 1.24 (0.01) 1.49 (0.01) 1.48 (0.01) - 8m31s 7s 3s 0s 7m13s 1s -
    100 0.88 (0.01) 1.39 (0.01) 0.71 (0.02) 1.18 (0.01) 1.41 (0.01) 1.40 (0.01) - 41m34s 15s 4s 0s 1h24m11s 1s -
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 5.  Min put option on Black—Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $ and varying initial stock price $ x_0 $. Here, $ r = 2\% $ is used as interest rate

    price duration
    d $ x_0$ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 80 35.49 (0.07) 35.48 (0.06) 35.21 (0.12) 35.46 (0.07) 35.53 (0.08) 35.54 (0.05) 11s 10s 3s 0s 3s 0s
    100 19.98 (0.09) 19.96 (0.09) 19.68 (0.07) 19.96 (0.14) 19.97 (0.10) 19.95 (0.09) 11s 9s 3s 0s 3s 0s
    120 7.46 (0.10) 7.36 (0.08) 7.25 (0.07) 7.39 (0.10) 7.45 (0.11) 7.38 (0.10) 11s 6s 1s 0s 2s 0s
    10 80 40.22 (0.05) 40.17 (0.05) 39.91 (0.10) 40.21 (0.07) 40.31 (0.07) 40.30 (0.04) 28s 6s 2s 0s 9s 0s
    100 25.74 (0.09) 25.74 (0.10) 25.36 (0.12) 25.76 (0.09) 25.79 (0.10) 25.83 (0.13) 28s 6s 3s 0s 6s 0s
    120 11.98 (0.07) 11.92 (0.09) 11.62 (0.14) 11.94 (0.13) 11.96 (0.10) 12.03 (0.07) 28s 5s 1s 0s 6s 0s
    50 80 48.08 (0.05) 48.27 (0.04) 47.03 (0.19) 47.72 (0.03) 48.36 (0.05) 48.34 (0.04) 8m25s 8s 3s 0s 5m20s 1s
    100 35.57 (0.07) 35.80 (0.08) 34.27 (0.40) 35.11 (0.04) 35.91 (0.07) 35.87 (0.08) 8m35s 8s 3s 0s 6m57s 1s
    120 22.93 (0.08) 23.33 (0.07) 21.40 (0.41) 22.50 (0.05) 23.41 (0.06) 23.42 (0.10) 8m28s 8s 2s 0s 6m52s 1s
    100 80 49.71 (0.06) 50.93 (0.04) 48.78 (0.26) 50.48 (0.04) 50.93 (0.04) 50.99 (0.03) 39m57s 13s 3s 0s 1h22m58s 1s
    100 37.63 (0.07) 39.11 (0.05) 36.42 (0.80) 38.55 (0.05) 39.11 (0.06) 39.22 (0.04) 40m12s 12s 3s 0s 1h23m26s 1s
    120 25.52 (0.08) 27.31 (0.05) 24.13 (0.52) 26.64 (0.03) 27.28 (0.07) 27.42 (0.05) 40m40s 12s 3s 0s 1h22m53s 1s
    500 80 - 55.71 (0.03) 51.51 (0.46) 55.66 (0.03) - 56.04 (0.03) - 54s 13s 1s - 1s
    100 - 45.14 (0.05) 40.06 (1.04) 45.05 (0.02) - 45.51 (0.03) - 53s 13s 1s - 1s
    120 - 34.53 (0.05) 28.39 (0.75) 34.45 (0.05) - 34.99 (0.02) - 54s 12s 1s - 1s
    1000 80 - 57.40 (0.03) 53.50 (0.64) 57.52 (0.03) - 57.84 (0.02) - 1m36s 21s 3s - 2s
    100 - 47.24 (0.05) 42.35 (0.63) 47.40 (0.05) - 47.76 (0.03) - 1m37s 21s 3s - 2s
    120 - 37.04 (0.03) 31.10 (0.87) 37.25 (0.04) - 37.68 (0.03) - 1m34s 20s 3s - 2s
    2000 80 - 58.59 (0.04) 55.21 (0.67) 59.21 (0.02) - 59.50 (0.02) - 3m 1s 30s 6s - 3s
    100 - 48.72 (0.04) 44.37 (0.61) 49.49 (0.04) - 49.83 (0.03) - 2m56s 31s 6s - 3s
    120 - 38.84 (0.06) 33.31 (0.73) 39.79 (0.04) - 40.18 (0.04) - 3m 0s 31s 6s - 3s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 6.  Max call option on Black–Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $. Here, $ r = 5\% $ is used as interest rate, and $ \delta = 10\% $ is used as dividend rate

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 18.83 (0.17) 18.66 (0.11) 18.62 (0.18) 18.83 (0.12) 18.43 (0.10) 18.83 (0.16) 22s 7s 3s 0s 2s 0s
    10 26.67 (0.14) 26.72 (0.17) 26.35 (0.14) 26.60 (0.12) 26.56 (0.13) 26.77 (0.09) 46s 7s 3s 0s 8s 0s
    50 43.86 (0.10) 44.52 (0.13) 43.27 (0.33) 43.37 (0.11) 44.66 (0.14) 44.78 (0.12) 10m 5s 10s 4s 0s 7m23s 1s
    100 46.62 (0.19) 51.71 (0.09) 49.31 (0.56) 50.61 (0.10) 51.79 (0.17) 52.16 (0.09) 49m27s 15s 5s 0s 1h21m26s 1s
    500 - 67.12 (0.09) 62.82 (0.72) 67.02 (0.08) - 68.48 (0.13) - 59s 14s 2s - 2s
    1000 - 73.37 (0.12) 69.25 (0.83) 73.85 (0.10) - 75.31 (0.08) - 1m52s 26s 4s - 2s
    2000 - 78.17 (0.11) 76.57 (0.83) 80.54 (0.07) - 81.96 (0.16) - 5m26s 47s 8s - 3s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 7.  Min put option on Heston (with variance) for different numbers of stocks $ d $. Here, $ r = 2\% $ is used as interest rate

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 12.34 (0.05) 12.31 (0.05) 12.16 (0.11) 12.29 (0.06) 12.35 (0.09) 12.37 (0.09) 30s 6s 3s 0s 8s 0s
    10 16.48 (0.07) 16.52 (0.08) 16.09 (0.13) 16.55 (0.06) 16.64 (0.07) 16.61 (0.08) 1m31s 6s 3s 0s 28s 0s
    50 22.86 (0.05) 25.56 (0.04) 24.03 (0.42) 24.85 (0.08) 25.72 (0.03) 25.71 (0.07) 39m57s 9s 4s 0s 1h21m59s 1s
    100 - 29.13 (0.04) 27.30 (0.46) 28.50 (0.06) - 29.33 (0.07) - 16s 6s 0s - 1s
    500 - 36.26 (0.05) 34.74 (0.31) 36.28 (0.04) - 36.95 (0.05) - 1m21s 24s 3s - 2s
    1000 - 38.62 (0.08) 38.19 (0.20) 39.32 (0.03) - 39.93 (0.05) - 3m18s 45s 6s - 4s
    2000 - 39.22 (0.13) 41.05 (0.21) 42.22 (0.04) - 42.81 (0.04) - 12m51s 1m37s 13s - 8s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 8.  Max call option on Heston (with variance) for different numbers of stocks $ d $. Here, $ r = 5\% $ is used as interest rate, and $ \delta = 10\% $ is used as dividend rate

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 4.88 (0.03) 4.89 (0.03) 4.69 (0.05) 4.83 (0.04) 4.37 (0.06) 4.59 (0.08) 31s 5s 3s 0s 8s 0s
    10 7.19 (0.06) 7.20 (0.04) 6.90 (0.07) 7.17 (0.04) 6.63 (0.07) 6.84 (0.06) 1m33s 5s 2s 0s 27s 0s
    50 11.68 (0.05) 13.99 (0.07) 12.93 (0.28) 13.70 (0.05) 13.72 (0.09) 13.71 (0.04) 41m 6s 8s 3s 0s 1h22m14s 1s
    100 - 17.04 (0.07) 15.94 (0.29) 16.80 (0.03) - 16.97 (0.05) - 11s 5s 0s - 1s
    500 - 24.05 (0.05) 22.95 (0.40) 24.35 (0.05) - 24.70 (0.05) - 1m19s 23s 3s - 2s
    1000 - 26.86 (0.05) 26.47 (0.39) 27.71 (0.04) - 28.08 (0.05) - 2m48s 41s 6s - 4s
    2000 - 28.01 (0.11) 30.12 (0.18) 31.13 (0.05) - 31.55 (0.07) - 12m56s 1m30s 14s - 7s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 9.  Max call option on Black–Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $ and higher numbers of exercise dates $ N $

    price duration
    d N LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP
    10 10 34.33 (0.15) 34.03 (0.17) 33.69 (0.20) 34.28 (0.11) 34.25 (0.19) 34.17 (0.11) 34.26 (0.09) 29s 7s 2s 0s 7s 0s 0s
    50 34.13 (0.12) 34.14 (0.20) 33.96 (0.11) 33.98 (0.08) 34.25 (0.21) 34.15 (0.13) 34.23 (0.11) 2m44s 32s 20s 0s 46s 6s 0s
    100 34.15 (0.14) 34.14 (0.26) 33.98 (0.24) 34.05 (0.15) 34.29 (0.16) 33.97 (0.11) 34.28 (0.10) 5m18s 1m 6s 32s 1s 1m27s 7s 0s
    50 10 53.49 (0.10) 53.93 (0.12) 52.15 (0.60) 52.44 (0.21) 54.24 (0.09) 54.23 (0.08) 54.37 (0.09) 8m42s 8s 3s 0s 6m57s 1s 0s
    50 52.82 (0.13) 53.94 (0.18) 53.24 (0.26) 50.85 (0.18) 54.31 (0.14) 53.74 (0.08) 54.46 (0.11) 48m36s 41s 18s 1s 21m15s 7s 0s
    100 52.74 (0.11) 54.09 (0.15) 53.61 (0.18) 50.42 (0.17) 54.15 (0.10) 53.77 (0.12) 54.33 (0.14) 1h37m48s 1m36s 37s 2s 41m 8s 16s 0s
    100 10 56.83 (0.18) 61.84 (0.26) 58.99 (0.62) 60.58 (0.10) 62.07 (0.15) 62.32 (0.16) 62.43 (0.08) 40m42s 13s 4s 0s 1h23m28s 1s 0s
    50 - 61.88 (0.06) 60.72 (0.24) 58.68 (0.13) - 61.66 (0.14) 62.48 (0.07) - 1m15s 22s 1s - 8s 0s
    100 - 62.07 (0.11) 61.19 (0.15) 58.26 (0.16) - 61.79 (0.11) 62.46 (0.04) - 2m23s 44s 3s - 15s 0s
    500 10 - 78.27 (0.16) 74.23 (1.03) 78.80 (0.10) - 80.21 (0.13) 80.45 (0.08) - 53s 12s 1s - 1s 0s
    50 - 79.14 (0.08) 75.63 (1.07) 76.68 (0.05) - 79.23 (0.07) 80.44 (0.09) - 4m59s 1m 4s 8s - 9s 0s
    100 - 79.44 (0.09) 76.46 (0.41) 76.33 (0.05) - 79.34 (0.08) 80.47 (0.10) - 10m12s 2m13s 18s - 19s 0s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 10.  Max call option on Black–Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $ and higher numbers of exercise dates $ N $. Here, $ r = 5\% $ is used as interest rate, and $ \delta = 10\% $ is used as dividend rate

    price duration
    d N LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI3 RFQI
    10 10 26.67 (0.14) 26.72 (0.17) 26.35 (0.14) 26.60 (0.12) 26.56 (0.13) 26.77 (0.09) 46s 7s 3s 0s 8s 0s
    50 26.65 (0.12) 26.56 (0.20) 26.42 (0.17) 26.61 (0.13) 26.51 (0.07) 26.69 (0.18) 2m21s 44s 53s 2s 44s 4s
    100 26.68 (0.19) 26.44 (0.14) 26.42 (0.19) 26.59 (0.13) 26.55 (0.14) 26.65 (0.16) 4m46s 2m46s 1m45s 1s 1m25s 8s
    50 10 43.86 (0.10) 44.52 (0.13) 43.27 (0.33) 43.37 (0.11) 44.66 (0.14) 44.78 (0.12) 10m 5s 10s 4s 0s 7m23s 1s
    50 43.42 (0.09) 44.50 (0.08) 44.13 (0.19) 42.26 (0.10) 44.68 (0.15) 44.72 (0.12) 43m 5s 1m14s 52s 3s 16m46s 9s
    100 43.21 (0.14) 44.45 (0.15) 44.30 (0.13) 41.89 (0.31) 44.64 (0.17) 44.60 (0.14) 1h25m 4s 2m 0s 1m45s 2s 36m10s 17s
    100 10 46.62 (0.19) 51.71 (0.09) 49.31 (0.56) 50.61 (0.10) 51.79 (0.17) 52.16 (0.09) 49m27s 15s 5s 0s 1h21m26s 1s
    50 - 51.73 (0.10) 50.89 (0.21) 49.36 (0.09) - 51.91 (0.12) - 52s 33s 1s - 8s
    100 - 51.72 (0.15) 51.27 (0.12) 48.90 (0.08) - 51.84 (0.11) - 1m48s 46s 3s - 19s
    500 10 - 67.12 (0.09) 62.82 (0.72) 67.02 (0.08) - 68.48 (0.13) - 59s 14s 2s - 2s
    50 - 67.48 (0.11) 64.75 (0.50) 65.70 (0.07) - 68.03 (0.12) - 2m56s 1m 4s 7s - 10s
    100 - 67.50 (0.15) 65.55 (0.34) 65.22 (0.07) - 67.91 (0.10) - 5m48s 1m52s 16s - 20s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 11.  Identity, maximum and mean on the fractional Brownian motion with $ H = 0.05 $ and different numbers of stocks $ d $

    price duration
    payoff $ d $ DOS pathDOS RLSM RRLSM DOS pathDOS RLSM RRLSM
    Identity 1 0.67 (0.02) 1.24 (0.01) 0.65 (0.01) 1.24 (0.01) 1 m 15 s 3 m 1 s 0s 1s
    Max 5 1.96 (0.01) 2.15 (0.01) 2.00 (0.01) 2.16 (0.01) 3 m 8 s 21 m 46 s 4s 1s
    10 2.34 (0.01) 2.43 (0.01) 2.40 (0.01) 2.43 (0.02) 3 m 49 s 37 m 46 s 4s 2s
    Mean 5 0.29 (0.01) 0.53 (0.00) 0.28 (0.01) 0.52 (0.01) 3 m 40 s 21 m 8 s 3s 1s
    10 0.20 (0.01) 0.36 (0.00) 0.21 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 3 m 39 s 36 m 1 s 5s 1s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 12.  Max call option on Rough–Heston for different numbers of stocks $ d $. The interest rate is $ r = 5\% $, and the dividend rate is $ \delta = 10\% $

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS pathDOS NLSM RLSM RRLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS pathDOS NLSM RLSM RRLSM FQI RFQI
    5 6.58 (0.05) 6.56 (0.05) 6.46 (0.06) 6.39 (0.06) 6.50 (0.04) 6.46 (0.04) 6.10 (0.08) 6.33 (0.16) 0s 7s 11s 3s 0s 0s 15s 0s
    10 9.41 (0.04) 9.46 (0.04) 9.28 (0.05) 9.27 (0.11) 9.48 (0.04) 9.37 (0.05) 9.19 (0.09) 9.02 (1.18) 1s 7s 13s 3s 0s 0s 37s 0s
    50 13.90 (0.07) 16.69 (0.06) 16.47 (0.06) 15.68 (0.32) 16.35 (0.04) 16.37 (0.03) 16.72 (0.07) 16.75 (0.04) 18m51s 9s 39s 4s 0s 0s 1h24m22s 1s
    100 - 19.79 (0.05) 19.51 (0.05) 18.39 (0.35) 19.50 (0.04) 19.49 (0.04) - 19.99 (0.05) - 13s 1m16s 6s 0s 0s - 1s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 13.  Lower, midpoint and upper approximations with RLSM of the price of a max call option on Black–Scholes for different numbers of stocks $ d $ and varying initial stock price $ x_0 $. The parameters for the stock model are $ r = 5\% $, $ \delta = 10\% $, $ N = 9 $, $ T = 3 $ and $ K = 100 $. We use $ m = 100,000 $ paths and $ 100 $ neurons for the hidden layer

    d $ x_0 $ price lower price midpoint price upper
    2 90 7.9772(0.0512) 8.0077(0.0362) 8.0382(0.0619)
    2 100 13.7902(0.0664) 13.8627(0.0552) 13.9353(0.0566)
    2 110 21.2070(0.0757) 21.2735(0.0420) 21.3399(0.1001)
    3 90 11.1869(0.0373) 11.1937(0.0466) 11.2005(0.0603)
    3 100 18.5698(0.0803) 18.6061(0.0401) 18.6425(0.0515)
    3 110 27.3981(0.1359) 27.4284(0.0757) 27.4588(0.0706)
    5 90 16.4518(0.0645) 16.4995(0.0410) 16.5473(0.0479)
    5 100 25.9604(0.0856) 25.9868(0.0569) 26.0133(0.0893)
    5 110 36.5271(0.1066) 36.6024(0.0610) 36.6777(0.1023)
    10 90 25.9808(0.0923) 26.0235(0.0568) 26.0662(0.0805)
    10 100 38.0031(0.0759) 38.0750(0.0592) 38.1469(0.0952)
    10 110 50.5117(0.0689) 50.5668(0.0567) 50.6219(0.0962)
    20 90 37.4659(0.0944) 37.5135(0.0737) 37.5611(0.1440)
    20 100 51.3532(0.1073) 51.3900(0.0929) 51.4269(0.1043)
    20 110 65.2114(0.0820) 65.2774(0.0451) 65.3434(0.0680
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 14.  Prices and Greeks computed for different strikes $ K $ of a $ 1 $-dimensional put option on Black–Scholes. For the binomial (B) algorithm, the spacing of the FD method is set to $ \varepsilon = 10^{-9} $, which is also used for the other algorithms for delta, theta, rho and vega. For the regression method, $ \epsilon = 5 $ and a polynomial basis up to degree $ 9 $ are used

    price delta gamma theta rho vega
    K algo FD regr. FD regr. PDE regr.
    36 B 0.9192(—) -0.1982(—) 0.0389(—) -0.7152(—) -6.7085(—) 10.9100(—)
    36 LSM 0.9024(0.0086) 0.9006(0.0094) -0.1919(0.0019) -0.1888(0.0027) 0.0368(0.0004) 0.0381(0.0009) -0.6615(0.0068) -6.8267(0.0497) 10.7107(0.0918)
    36 RLSM 0.9020(0.0069) 0.9073(0.0110) -0.1940(0.0019) -0.1947(0.0026) 0.0371(0.0003) 0.0379(0.0010) -0.6665(0.0063) -6.8241(0.0639) 10.7590(0.0629)
    36 FQI 0.8504(0.0067) 0.8642(0.0116) -0.1777(0.0016) -0.1770(0.0015) 0.0329(0.0003) 0.0329(0.0011) -0.5753(0.0047) -7.7168(0.0676) 10.3836(0.0841)
    36 RFQI 0.9005(0.0087) 0.8766(0.0138) -0.1924(0.0029) -0.1847(0.0041) 0.0368(0.0005) 0.0369(0.0009) -0.6612(0.0105) -6.8282(0.0891) 10.7093(0.0880)
    36 NLSM 0.8948(0.0238) 0.8817(0.0151) -0.2010(0.0174) -0.1905(0.0038) 0.0368(0.0013) 0.0380(0.0006) -0.6427(0.0124) -6.9383(0.0625) 10.6464(0.1207)
    36 DOS 0.9068(0.0093) 0.9081(0.0106) -0.1957(0.0024) -0.1940(0.0033) 0.0359(0.0013) 0.0378(0.0012) -0.6251(0.0393) -7.0119(0.3001) 10.7249(0.1419)
    40 B 2.3196(—) -0.4047(—) 0.0611(—) -0.8446(—) -11.2405(—) 14.7517(—)
    40 LSM 2.2916(0.0107) 2.2715(0.0116) -0.3930(0.0022) -0.4049(0.0053) 0.0579(0.0003) 0.0637(0.0009) -0.7711(0.0051) -11.6289(0.0573) 14.6886(0.0548)
    40 RLSM 2.2897(0.0095) 2.2970(0.0135) -0.3984(0.0052) -0.4076(0.0039) 0.0583(0.0006) 0.0610(0.0012) -0.7721(0.0067) -11.6357(0.1092) 14.7026(0.0467)
    40 FQI 2.2593(0.0121) 2.2078(0.0161) -0.3661(0.0017) -0.3934(0.0038) 0.0541(0.0003) 0.0655(0.0013) -0.7179(0.0057) -12.6145(0.0856) 14.7479(0.0670)
    40 RFQI 2.2239(0.0407) 2.1252(0.0374) -0.3623(0.0140) -0.3654(0.0123) 0.0529(0.0024) 0.0570(0.0024) -0.6897(0.0415) -12.9713(0.6541) 14.6794(0.0831)
    40 NLSM 2.2586(0.0149) 2.2599(0.0236) -0.3830(0.0136) -0.4034(0.0035) 0.0565(0.0013) 0.0620(0.0012) -0.7529(0.0166) -11.7895(0.2469) 14.6545(0.0970)
    40 DOS 2.2884(0.0102) 2.2963(0.0099) -0.4031(0.0037) -0.4071(0.0039) 0.0587(0.0004) 0.0611(0.0006) -0.7727(0.0055) -11.5870(0.1041) 14.7045(0.0579)
    44 B 4.6629(—) -0.6654(—) 0.0779(—) -0.6169(—) -11.8974(—) 12.8541(—)
    44 LSM 4.6141(0.0175) 4.6177(0.0120) -0.6476(0.0037) -0.6693(0.0051) 0.0743(0.0003) 0.0676(0.0012) -0.5468(0.0055) -12.8537(0.1337) 13.1799(0.1129)
    44 RLSM 4.6167(0.0205) 4.6407(0.0178) -0.6541(0.0067) -0.6699(0.0036) 0.0746(0.0005) 0.0641(0.0022) -0.5400(0.0034) -12.7787(0.2212) 13.0670(0.1566)
    44 FQI 4.5366(0.0221) 4.5476(0.0137) -0.5962(0.0039) -0.6766(0.0054) 0.0695(0.0005) 0.0710(0.0013) -0.5216(0.0066) -15.2857(0.1248) 14.3877(0.0471)
    44 RFQI 4.3469(0.0708) 4.1557(0.0415) -0.5463(0.0073) -0.5791(0.0059) 0.0607(0.0023) 0.0687(0.0019) -0.3688(0.0534) -19.9917(1.0327) 15.6835(0.1199)
    44 NLSM 4.5820(0.0211) 4.5996(0.0531) -0.6553(0.0150) -0.6713(0.0048) 0.0742(0.0008) 0.0658(0.0029) -0.5268(0.0182) -13.1123(0.9381) 12.9567(0.5430)
    44 DOS 4.6206(0.0126) 4.6536(0.0113) -0.6580(0.0046) -0.6695(0.0042) 0.0747(0.0003) 0.0641(0.0016) -0.5350(0.0050) -12.8331(0.2236) 13.0304(0.1295)
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 15.  Prices and Greeks for NLSM (with different number of training epochs), RLSM and RLSMreinit with standard deviations computed over 10 runs with different initializations on the same set of paths

    algo #epochs price delta gamma theta rho vega duration
    NLSM 10 8.8961(0.0356) 0.5845(0.0018) 0.0194(0.0001) -4.8682(0.0142) 46.0934(1.2538) 39.4202(0.0613) 7.86s
    NLSM 30 8.9175(0.0171) 0.5836(0.0008) 0.0194(0.0001) -4.8723(0.0206) 47.2922(1.2718) 39.3781(0.0640) 19.53s
    NLSM 50 8.9178(0.0160) 0.5835(0.0006) 0.0194(0.0001) -4.8780(0.0166) 46.6717(1.6730) 39.3755(0.1004) 35.03s
    RLSM 8.9439(0.0179) 0.5828(0.0004) 0.0195(0.0001) -4.8952(0.0153) 48.0459(0.7537) 39.3425(0.0951) 1.37s
    RLSMreinit 8.9425(0.0081) 0.5828(0.0002) 0.0195(0.0000) -4.8887(0.0078) 47.7329(0.3765) 39.3477(0.0573) 1.52s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 16.  Results of stopping a fractional Brownian Motion for different Hurst parameters

    price duration
    H DOS pathDOS RLSM RRLSM FQI RFQI RRFQI pathRFQI DOS pathDOS RLSM RRLSM FQI RFQI RRFQI pathRFQI
    0.01 0.85 (0.02) 1.48 (0.01) 0.84 (0.01) 1.45 (0.01) 0.79 (0.01) 0.78 (0.02) 0.85 (0.07) 1.09 (0.08) 1m15s 2m59s 0s 1s 9s 5s 18s 18s
    0.05 0.67 (0.02) 1.24 (0.01) 0.65 (0.01) 1.24 (0.01) 0.68 (0.01) 0.67 (0.02) 0.71 (0.04) 0.99 (0.07) 1m15s 3m 1s 0s 1s 9s 4s 19s 19s
    0.1 0.50 (0.02) 0.99 (0.01) 0.49 (0.01) 1.02 (0.01) 0.57 (0.01) 0.55 (0.01) 0.56 (0.05) 0.83 (0.03) 1m12s 2m58s 0s 1s 10s 4s 19s 20s
    0.15 0.37 (0.02) 0.77 (0.01) 0.38 (0.01) 0.82 (0.01) 0.47 (0.02) 0.45 (0.02) 0.47 (0.05) 0.65 (0.03) 1m13s 2m59s 0s 1s 9s 4s 19s 18s
    0.2 0.28 (0.01) 0.60 (0.01) 0.31 (0.01) 0.64 (0.01) 0.38 (0.01) 0.35 (0.09) 0.31 (0.02) 0.53 (0.02) 1m15s 2m58s 1s 1s 9s 4s 19s 17s
    0.25 0.23 (0.01) 0.44 (0.01) 0.25 (0.01) 0.49 (0.01) 0.29 (0.01) 0.26 (0.05) 0.26 (0.04) 0.39 (0.02) 1m14s 2m58s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 19s
    0.3 0.18 (0.01) 0.30 (0.01) 0.20 (0.01) 0.36 (0.01) 0.21 (0.01) 0.17 (0.01) 0.15 (0.01) 0.27 (0.01) 1m13s 2m57s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.35 0.13 (0.01) 0.19 (0.01) 0.15 (0.01) 0.25 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.13 (0.02) 0.12 (0.03) 0.17 (0.01) 1m15s 2m57s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 19s
    0.4 0.08 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.09 (0.01) 0.06 (0.01) 0.06 (0.01) 0.10 (0.02) 1m15s 2m59s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 19s
    0.45 0.04 (0.01) 0.03 (0.01) 0.05 (0.01) 0.06 (0.01) 0.04 (0.01) 0.02 (0.01) 0.03 (0.01) 0.05 (0.01) 1m14s 2m58s 0s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.5 0.00 (0.00) 0.01 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.01) 0.01 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 1m14s 2m57s 0s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.55 0.03 (0.01) 0.02 (0.01) 0.03 (0.01) 0.05 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m16s 3m 0s 1s 1s 9s 4s 17s 18s
    0.6 0.07 (0.00) 0.09 (0.01) 0.08 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m12s 2m56s 1s 1s 9s 4s 17s 18s
    0.65 0.10 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.12 (0.01) 0.16 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.01 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m13s 2m59s 1s 1s 9s 4s 17s 18s
    0.7 0.14 (0.01) 0.19 (0.01) 0.16 (0.01) 0.20 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m13s 2m57s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.75 0.18 (0.01) 0.23 (0.01) 0.19 (0.00) 0.23 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m15s 2m55s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.8 0.22 (0.01) 0.26 (0.01) 0.23 (0.01) 0.26 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m15s 2m58s 1s 1s 9s 4s 17s 18s
    0.85 0.26 (0.00) 0.29 (0.01) 0.27 (0.01) 0.29 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m16s 2m55s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.9 0.30 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.30 (0.00) 0.32 (0.00) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m14s 2m55s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.95 0.34 (0.01) 0.35 (0.00) 0.34 (0.01) 0.35 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m 9s 2m55s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
    0.999 0.38 (0.01) 0.39 (0.01) 0.38 (0.01) 0.38 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.01 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 1m18s 2m45s 1s 1s 9s 4s 18s 18s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 17.  Max call option on Heston for different numbers of stocks d

    price duration
    d LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI EOP
    5 8.34 (0.07) 8.29 (0.09) 8.17 (0.06) 8.31 (0.07) 8.23 (0.04) 8.34 (0.08) 8.23 (0.04) 11s 7s 3s 0s 3s 0s 0s
    10 11.83 (0.07) 11.81 (0.09) 11.39 (0.16) 11.83 (0.07) 11.77 (0.04) 11.82 (0.05) 11.79 (0.05) 29s 6s 3s 0s 6s 0s 0s
    50 19.60 (0.07) 20.04 (0.04) 18.14 (0.37) 19.32 (0.05) 20.05 (0.06) 20.08 (0.06) 20.06 (0.03) 8m50s 7s 3s 0s 6m36s 1s 0s
    100 20.51 (0.09) 23.57 (0.07) 21.29 (0.46) 22.87 (0.04) 23.56 (0.07) 23.67 (0.05) 23.67 (0.05) 40m44s 9s 3s 0s 1h21m35s 1s 0s
    500 - 31.62 (0.06) 28.38 (0.55) 31.33 (0.04) - 32.09 (0.06) 32.14 (0.02) - 44s 8s 1s - 1s 0s
    1000 - 34.99 (0.08) 33.03 (0.50) 35.06 (0.04) - 35.83 (0.05) 35.84 (0.03) - 1m16s 15s 2s - 1s 0s
    2000 - 37.77 (0.07) 36.77 (0.32) 38.83 (0.06) - 39.64 (0.07) 39.61 (0.04) - 2m17s 25s 4s - 2s 0s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 18.  Min put option on Heston for different numbers of stocks $ d $ and varying initial stock price $ x_0 $. Here, $ r = 2\% $ is used as interest rate

    price duration
    $ d $ LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 12.29 (0.07) 12.26 (0.06) 12.12 (0.08) 12.25 (0.07) 12.38 (0.08) 12.34 (0.07) 12s 6s 3s 0s 2s 0s
    10 16.55 (0.06) 16.54 (0.10) 16.03 (0.19) 16.50 (0.06) 16.63 (0.09) 16.64 (0.06) 30s 6s 3s 0s 10s 0s
    50 25.24 (0.07) 25.66 (0.07) 23.67 (0.35) 24.87 (0.04) 25.71 (0.07) 25.68 (0.04) 8m42s 8s 3s 0s 7m34s 1s
    100 26.84 (0.09) 29.22 (0.07) 26.47 (0.62) 28.45 (0.03) 29.26 (0.06) 29.32 (0.07) 42m26s 12s 4s 0s 1h24m 4s 1s
    500 - 36.47 (0.05) 33.80 (0.65) 36.26 (0.05) - 36.93 (0.04) - 56s 13s 1s - 1s
    1000 - 39.25 (0.04) 37.01 (0.34) 39.33 (0.02) - 39.93 (0.04) - 1m49s 23s 2s - 2s
    2000 - 41.45 (0.03) 39.92 (0.26) 42.25 (0.05) - 42.78 (0.04) - 3m58s 43s 5s - 2s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Table 19.  Max call option on Heston for different numbers of stocks d. Here, r = 5% is used as interest rate, and δ = 10% is used as dividend rate

    price duration
    d LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI LSM DOS NLSM RLSM FQI RFQI
    5 4.82 (0.03) 4.78 (0.04) 4.68 (0.04) 4.75 (0.04) 4.29 (0.12) 4.57 (0.06) 12s 5s 3s 0s 2s 0s
    10 7.20 (0.06) 7.16 (0.04) 6.92 (0.06) 7.13 (0.05) 6.60 (0.14) 6.76 (0.16) 29s 6s 3s 0s 8s 0s
    50 13.48 (0.05) 13.98 (0.03) 12.44 (0.18) 13.69 (0.04) 13.79 (0.03) 13.72 (0.07) 8m34s 8s 3s 0s 7m 7s 1s
    100 14.63 (0.07) 17.13 (0.06) 15.19 (0.32) 16.83 (0.04) 16.97 (0.07) 16.99 (0.04) 39m49s 12s 6s 0s 1h23m 4s 1s
    500 - 24.31 (0.08) 21.83 (0.63) 24.37 (0.04) - 24.69 (0.05) - 54s 12s 1s - 1s
    1000 - 27.42 (0.07) 25.64 (0.55) 27.73 (0.03) - 28.08 (0.06) - 1m39s 23s 2s - 2s
    2000 - 30.10 (0.08) 29.27 (0.36) 31.09 (0.04) - 31.50 (0.06) - 3m47s 43s 5s - 2s
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV
  • [1] E. Abi Jaber and O. El Euch, Multifactor approximation of rough volatility models, SIAM Journal on Financial Mathematics, 10 (2019), 309-349.  doi: 10.1137/18M1170236.
    [2] L. Andersen, A simple approach to the pricing of Bermudan swaptions in the multi-factor Libor Market model, Mathematical Finance, 3 (1999), 5-32. 
    [3] A. Bakan, Representation of measures with polynomial denseness in ${L}_p(\mathbb{R}, d \mu)$, $ 0 < p < \infty$, and its application to determinate moment problems, Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 136 (2008), 3579-3589.  doi: 10.1090/S0002-9939-08-09418-5.
    [4] V. Bally and G. Pagès, A quantization algorithm for solving multi-dimensional discrete-time optimal stopping problems, Bernoulli, 9 (2003), 1003-1049.  doi: 10.3150/bj/1072215199.
    [5] V. BallyG. Pagès and J. Printems, A quantization tree method for pricing and hedging multidimensional American options, Mathematical Finance, 15 (2005), 119-168.  doi: 10.1111/j.0960-1627.2005.00213.x.
    [6] P. Bank and D. Besslich, On Lenglart's theory of Meyer-sigma-fields and El Karoui's theory of optimal stopping, arXiv: 1810.08485, Preprint, 2019.
    [7] J. Barraquand and D. Martineau, Numerical valuation of high dimensional multivariate American securities, The Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 30 (1995), 383-405. 
    [8] C. BayerM. EigelL. Sallandt and P. Trunschke, Pricing high-dimensional Bermudan options with hierarchical tensor formats, SIAM Journal on Financial Mathematics, 14 (2023), 383-406.  doi: 10.1137/21M1402170.
    [9] C. BayerP. Friz and J. Gatheral, Pricing under rough volatility, Quantitative Finance, 16 (2016), 887-904.  doi: 10.1080/14697688.2015.1099717.
    [10] S. Becker, P. Cheridito and A. Jentzen, Deep optimal stopping, Journal of Machine Learning Research, 20 (2019), Paper No. 74, 25 pp.
    [11] S. BeckerP. Cheridito and A. Jentzen, Pricing and hedging American-style options with deep learning, Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13 (2020), 158.  doi: 10.3390/jrfm13070158.
    [12] D. P. Bertsekas and J. N. Tsitsiklis, Neuro-Dynamic Programming, Athena Scientific, 1996.
    [13] B. Bouchard and X. Warin, Monte-Carlo valuation of American options: Facts and new algorithms to improve existing methods, in Proceedings of the Numerical Methods in Finance: Bordeaux, June 2010, Springer, 2012,215-255. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-25746-9_7.
    [14] P. P. BoyleA. W. Kolkiewicz and K. S. Tan, An improved simulation method for pricing high-dimensional American derivatives, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 62 (2003), 315-322.  doi: 10.1016/S0378-4754(02)00248-3.
    [15] M. Broadie and P. Glasserman, A stochastic mesh method for pricing high-dimensional American options, Journal of Computational Finance, 7 (2004), 35-72.  doi: 10.21314/JCF.2004.117.
    [16] W. CaoX. WangZ. Ming and J. Gao, A review on neural networks with random weights, Neurocomputing, 275 (2018), 278-287.  doi: 10.1016/j.neucom.2017.08.040.
    [17] J. F. Carriere, Valuation of the early-exercise price for options using simulations and nonparametric regression, Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, 19 (1996), 19-30.  doi: 10.1016/S0167-6687(96)00004-2.
    [18] S. Chen, A. M. Devraj, A. Bušić and S. Meyn, Zap Q-learning for optimal stopping, in Proceedings of the 2020 American Control Conference (ACC), IEEE, 2020, 3920-3925. doi: 10.23919/ACC45564.2020.9147481.
    [19] E. ChevalierS. Pulido and E. Zúñiga, American options in the Volterra Heston model, SIAM Journal on Financial Mathematics, 13 (2022), 426-458.  doi: 10.1137/21M140674X.
    [20] E. Clément, D. Lamberton and P. Protter, An Analysis of the Longstaff-Schwartz Algorithm for American Option Pricing, Technical report, Cornell University Operations Research and Industrial Engineering, 2001.
    [21] J. C. CoxS. A. Ross and M. Rubinstein, Option pricing: A simplified approach, Journal of Financial Economics, 7 (1979), 229-263.  doi: 10.1016/0304-405X(79)90015-1.
    [22] M. de Bellefroid, The Derivatives Academy, 2022., https://bookdown.org/maxime_debellefroid/MyBook/.
    [23] D. Egloff, Monte Carlo algorithms for optimal stopping and statistical learning, The Annals of Applied Probability, 15 (2005), 1396-1432.  doi: 10.1214/105051605000000043.
    [24] D. EgloffM. Kohler and N. Todorovic, A dynamic look-ahead Monte Carlo algorithm for pricing Bermudan options, The Annals of Applied Probability, 17 (2007), 1138-1171.  doi: 10.1214/105051607000000249.
    [25] O. El EuchM. Fukasawa and M. Rosenbaum, The microstructural foundations of leverage effect and rough volatility, Finance and Stochastics, 22 (2018), 241-280.  doi: 10.1007/s00780-018-0360-z.
    [26] O. El Euch, J. Gatheral and M. Rosenbaum, Roughening Heston, Risk, (2019), 84-89. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3116887.
    [27] O. El Euch and M. Rosenbaum, Perfect hedging in rough Heston models, The Annals of Applied Probability, 28 (2018), 3813-3856.  doi: 10.1214/18-AAP1408.
    [28] N. El Karoui, Les aspects probabilistes du controle stochastique, in Proceedings of the École d'été de Probabilités de Saint-Flour IX-1979, Springer, 1981, 73-238.
    [29] H. Föllmer and A. Schied, Stochastic Finance: An Introduction in Discrete Time, De Gruyter, 2016. doi: 10.1515/9783110463453.
    [30] C. GallicchioA. Micheli and L. Pedrelli, Deep reservoir computing: A critical experimental analysis, Neurocomputing, 268 (2017), 87-99.  doi: 10.1016/j.neucom.2016.12.089.
    [31] D. García, Convergence and biases of Monte Carlo estimates of American option prices using a parametric exercise rule, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 27 (2003), 1855-1879.  doi: 10.1016/S0165-1889(02)00086-6.
    [32] J. GatheralT. Jaisson and M. Rosenbaum, Volatility is rough, Quantitative Finance, 18 (2018), 933-949.  doi: 10.1080/14697688.2017.1393551.
    [33] J. Gatheral, P. Jusselin and M. Rosenbaum, The quadratic rough heston model and the joint S&P 500/VIX smile calibration problem, arXiv: 2001.01789, Preprint, 2020.
    [34] E. GobetJ.-P. Lemor and X. Warin, A regression-based Monte Carlo method to solve backward stochastic differential equations, The Annals of Applied Probability, 15 (2005), 2172-2202.  doi: 10.1214/105051605000000412.
    [35] L. Gonon and J.-P. Ortega, Reservoir computing universality with stochastic inputs, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems, 31 (2020), 100-112.  doi: 10.1109/TNNLS.2019.2899649.
    [36] A. N. GorbanI. Y. TyukinD. V. Prokhorov and K. I. Sofeikov, Approximation with random bases: Pro et contra, Information Sciences, 364 (2016), 129-145.  doi: 10.1016/j.ins.2015.09.021.
    [37] H. Hanbali and D. Linders, American-type basket option pricing: A simple two-dimensional partial differential equation, Quantitative Finance, 19 (2019), 1689-1704.  doi: 10.1080/14697688.2019.1588987.
    [38] M. B. Haugh and L. Kogan, Pricing American options: A duality approach, Operations Research, 52 (2004), 258-270.  doi: 10.1287/opre.1030.0070.
    [39] C. Herrera, F. Krach and J. Teichmann, Estimating full Lipschitz constants of deep neural networks, arXiv: 2004.13135, Preprint, 2020.
    [40] S. L. Heston, A closed-form solution for options with stochastic volatility with applications to bond and currency options, The Review of Financial Studies, 6 (1993), 327-343.  doi: 10.1093/rfs/6.2.327.
    [41] K. Hornik, Approximation capabilities of multilayer feedforward networks, Neural Networks, 4 (1991), 251-257.  doi: 10.1016/0893-6080(91)90009-T.
    [42] G.-B. Huang, L. Chen, C. K. Siew, et al., Universal approximation using incremental constructive feedforward networks with random Hidden nodes, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 17 (2006), 879-892.
    [43] S. Jain and C. W. Oosterlee, The stochastic grid bundling method: Efficient pricing of Bermudan options and their Greeks, Applied Mathematics and Computation, 269 (2015), 412-431.  doi: 10.1016/j.amc.2015.07.085.
    [44] L. P. KaelblingM. L. Littman and A. W. Moore, Reinforcement learning: A survey, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 4 (1996), 237-285.  doi: 10.1613/jair.301.
    [45] M. KohlerA. Krzyżak and N. Todorovic, Pricing of high-dimensional American options by neural networks, Mathematical Finance, 20 (2010), 383-410.  doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9965.2010.00404.x.
    [46] A. Kolodko and J. Schoenmakers, Iterative construction of the optimal Bermudan stopping time, Finance and Stochastic, 10 (2006), 27-49.  doi: 10.1007/s00780-005-0168-5.
    [47] B. Lapeyre and J. Lelong, Neural network regression for Bermudan option pricing, Monte Carlo Methods and Applications, 27 (2021), 227-247.  doi: 10.1515/mcma-2021-2091.
    [48] P. Letourneau and L. Stentoft, Simulated Greeks for American options, Quantitative Finance, 23 (2023), 653-676.  doi: 10.1080/14697688.2022.2159869.
    [49] Y. Li, C. Szepesvari and D. Schuurmans, Learning exercise policies for American options, in Proceedings of the Twelth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Statistics, PMLR, 2009,352-359.
    [50] G. LivieriS. MoutiA. Pallavicini and M. Rosenbaum, Rough volatility: Evidence from option prices, IISE Transactions, 50 (2018), 767-776. 
    [51] F. A. Longstaff and E. S. Schwartz, Valuing American options by simulation: A simple least-squares approach, The Review of Financial Studies, 14 (2001), 113-147.  doi: 10.1093/rfs/14.1.113.
    [52] M. Lukoševičius and H. Jaeger, Reservoir computing approaches to recurrent neural network training, Computer Science Review, 3 (2009), 127-149. 
    [53] G. Pagès, Numerical Probability: An Introduction with Applications to Finance, 1st edition, Springer, 2018. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-90276-0.
    [54] H. Pham, Optimal stopping, free boundary, and American option in a jump-diffusion model, Applied Mathematics and Optimization, 35 (1997), 145-164. 
    [55] L. C. G. Rogers, Monte Carlo valuation of American options, Mathematical Finance, 12 (2002), 271-286.  doi: 10.1111/1467-9965.02010.
    [56] L. C. G. Rogers, Dual valuation and hedging of Bermudan options, SIAM Journal on Financial Mathematics, 1 (2010), 604-608.  doi: 10.1137/090772198.
    [57] A. M. Schäfer and H. G. Zimmermann, Recurrent neural networks are universal approximators, in Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks–ICANN 2006: Athens, Greece, Springer, 2006,632-640.
    [58] B. Schrauwen, D. Verstraeten and J. V. Campenhout, An overview of reservoir computing: Theory, applications and implementations, in Proceedings of the 15th European Symposium on Artificial Neural Networks, 2007,471-482.
    [59] M. Schweizer, On Bermudan options, in Advances in Finance and Stochastics: Essays in Honour of Dieter Sondermann, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2002,257-270.
    [60] L. Stentoft, Convergence of the least squares Monte Carlo approach to American option valuation, Management Science, 50 (2004), 1193-1203.  doi: 10.1287/mnsc.1030.0155.
    [61] R. S. Sutton and  A. G. BartoReinforcement Learning: An Introduction, MIT press, 2018. 
    [62] J. A. Tilley, Valuing American options in a path simulation model, Insurance Mathematics and Economics, 2 (1995), 169. 
    [63] J. N. Tsitsiklis and B. Van Roy, Optimal stopping of Markov processes: Hilbert space theory, approximation algorithms, and an application to pricing high-dimensional financial derivatives, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 44 (1999), 1840-1851.  doi: 10.1109/9.793723.
    [64] J. N. Tsitsiklis and B. Van Roy, Regression methods for pricing complex American-style options, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 12 (2001), 694-703.  doi: 10.1109/72.935083.
    [65] D. VerstraetenB. SchrauwenM. D'Haene and D. Stroobandt, An experimental unification of reservoir computing methods, Neural Networks, 20 (2007), 391-403.  doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2007.04.003.
    [66] H. Yu and D. P. Bertsekas, Q-learning algorithms for optimal stopping based on least squares, in Proceedings of the 2007 European Control Conference (ECC), IEEE, 2007, 2368-2375. doi: 10.23919/ECC.2007.7068523.
    [67] D. Z. Zanger, Convergence of a least-squares Monte Carlo algorithm for bounded approximating sets, Applied Mathematical Finance, 16 (2009), 123-150.  doi: 10.1080/13504860802516881.
    [68] D. Z. Zanger, Quantitative error estimates for a least-squares Monte Carlo algorithm for American option pricing, Finance and Stochastics, 17 (2013), 503-534.  doi: 10.1007/s00780-013-0204-9.
    [69] D. Z. Zanger, Convergence of a least-squares Monte Carlo algorithm for American option pricing with dependent sample data, Mathematical Finance, 28 (2018), 447-479.  doi: 10.1111/mafi.12125.
    [70] D. Z. Zanger, General error estimates for the Longstaff-Schwartz least-squares Monte Carlo algorithm, Mathematics of Operations Research, 45 (2020), 923-946.  doi: 10.1287/moor.2019.1017.
    [71] R. ZhangY. LanG.-B. Huang and Z.-B. Xu, Universal approximation of extreme learning machine with adaptive growth of Hidden nodes, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems, 23 (2012), 365-371.  doi: 10.1109/TNNLS.2011.2178124.
  • 加载中
Open Access Under a Creative Commons license

Figures(5)

Tables(19)

SHARE

Article Metrics

HTML views(9500) PDF downloads(3747) Cited by(0)

Access History

Catalog

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return