# American Institute of Mathematical Sciences

ISSN:
1551-0018

eISSN:
1547-1063

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## Mathematical Biosciences & Engineering

2011 , Volume 8 , Issue 2

Special Issue on Mathematical Methods in Systems Biology

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2011, 8(2): i-ii doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.2i +[Abstract](2270) +[PDF](68.9KB)
Abstract:
The editors of this special issue of Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering were the main organizers for the First International Workshop Mathematical Methods in System Biology, that took place on January 4-7, 2010 at Tel Aviv University in Tel Aviv, Israel. The workshop, initially planned as a small meeting, was an overwhelming success with 170 participants from Israel, the US, Canada and Europe. It included about 100 presentations: invited talks, special sessions dedicated to application of mathematical tools to various areas in biology and poster sessions which gave graduate students and young scientists a stage to present their research. We managed to attract a good mix of mathematicians working on biological and medical applications with biologists and medical doctors interested to present their challenging problems and to find mathematical tools for their solution. We would like to take the opportunity to thank the Office of International Science and Engineering of the National Science Foundation and the Society for Mathematical Biology for their support in bringing US participants to this event. Thanks are also due to the Vice-President for Research and Development of Tel Aviv University, the Faculty of Exact Sciences and its Dean Prof. Haim Wolfson, and the School of Mathematical Sciences for their help with covering local expenses. Special thanks are coming to the supporting team of students, postdocs and administrative staff for their incredible contribution to the success of the workshop.

2011, 8(2): 239-252 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.239 +[Abstract](2045) +[PDF](371.2KB)
Abstract:
In this paper we examine the steady state of tumour spheroids considering a structure in which the central necrotic region contains an inner liquid core surrounded by dead cells that keep some mechanical integrity. This partition is a consequence of assuming that a finite delay is required for the degradation of dead cells into liquid. The phenomenological assumption of constant local volume fraction of cells is also made. The above structure is coupled with a simple mechanical model that views the cell component as a viscous fluid and the extracellular liquid as an inviscid fluid. By imposing the continuity of the normal stress throughout the whole spheroid, we show that a steady state can exist only if the forces on cells at the outer boundary (provided e.g. by a surface tension) are intense enough, and in such a case we can compute the stationary radius. By giving reasonable values to the parameters, the model predicts that the stationary radius decreases with the external oxygen concentration, as expected from experimental observations.
2011, 8(2): 253-261 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.253 +[Abstract](2484) +[PDF](1672.0KB)
Abstract:
Chronic wounds are often associated with ischemic conditions whereby the blood vascular system is damaged. A mathematical model which accounts for these conditions is developed and computational results are described in the two-dimensional radially symmetric case. Preliminary results for the three-dimensional axially symmetric case are also included.
2011, 8(2): 263-277 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.263 +[Abstract](2946) +[PDF](1097.9KB)
Abstract:
Starting from the classical descriptions of cell motion we propose some ways to enhance the realism of modeling and to account for interesting features like allowing for a random switching between biased and unbiased motion or avoiding a set of obstacles. For this complex behavior of the cell population we propose new models and also provide a way to numerically assess the macroscopic densities of interest upon using a nonparametric estimation technique. Up to our knowledge, this is the only method able to numerically handle the entire complexity of such settings.
2011, 8(2): 279-287 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.279 +[Abstract](2219) +[PDF](231.4KB)
Abstract:
The fourth son is the one who doesn't even know how to ask a question. Tumor immunology is challenged by the failure to identify reliable surrogate markers in vaccine and other experimental therapies for cancer; perhaps investigators haven't yet asked the right questions. Unlike prophylactic vaccines for infectious disease, where the development of antibody is considered a satisfactory endpoint, no such endpoint exists for human therapeutic vaccines. Why is this? Despite an extensive roster of in vitro assays that correlate immune responses to favorable clinical outcomes, no assay is sufficiently reliable to be usefully predictive for vaccine therapy. The discussion reviews some of the historical developments in tumor immunology and the problem of defining a causal relationship when strong correlations are identified. The development of mathematical models from empirical data may help inform the clinician/scientist about underlying mechanisms and help frame new testable hypotheses.
2011, 8(2): 289-306 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.289 +[Abstract](2560) +[PDF](447.8KB)
Abstract:
Cyclic treatment strategies in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) are characterized by alternating applications of two (or more) different drugs, given one at a time. One of the main causes for treatment failure in CML is the generation of drug resistance by mutations of cancerous cells. We use mathematical methods to develop general guidelines on optimal cyclic treatment scheduling, with the aim of minimizing the resistance generation. We define a condition on the drugs' potencies which allows for a relatively successful application of cyclic therapies. We find that the best strategy is to start with the stronger drug, but use longer cycle durations for the weaker drug. We further investigate the situation where a degree of cross-resistance is present, such that certain mutations cause cells to become resistant to both drugs simultaneously.
2011, 8(2): 307-323 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.307 +[Abstract](2566) +[PDF](2060.0KB)
Abstract:
We consider the problem of minimizing the tumor volume with a priori given amounts of anti-angiogenic and cytotoxic agents. For one underlying mathematical model, optimal and suboptimal solutions are given for four versions of this problem: the case when only anti-angiogenic agents are administered, combination treatment with a cytotoxic agent, and when a standard linear pharmacokinetic equation for the anti-angiogenic agent is added to each of these models. It is shown that the solutions to the more complex models naturally build upon the simplified versions. This gives credence to a modeling approach that starts with the analysis of simplified models and then adds increasingly more complex and medically relevant features. Furthermore, for each of the problem formulations considered here, there exist excellent simple piecewise constant controls with a small number of switchings that virtually replicate the optimal values for the objective.
2011, 8(2): 325-354 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.325 +[Abstract](2554) +[PDF](840.1KB)
Abstract:
A saturable multi-compartment pharmacokinetic model for the anti-cancer drug paclitaxel is proposed based on a meta-analysis of pharmacokinetic data published over the last two decades. We present and classify the results of time series for the drug concentration in the body to uncover the underlying power laws. Two dominant fractional power law exponents were found to characterize the tails of paclitaxel concentration-time curves. Short infusion times led to a power exponent of $-1.57 \pm 0.14$, while long infusion times resulted in tails with roughly twice the exponent. Curves following intermediate infusion times were characterized by two power laws. An initial segment with the larger slope was followed by a long-time tail characterized by the smaller exponent. The area under the curve and the maximum concentration exhibited a power law dependence on dose, both with compatible fractional power exponents. Computer simulations using the proposed model revealed that a two-compartment model with both saturable distribution and elimination can reproduce both the single and crossover power laws. Also, the nonlinear dose-dependence is correlated with the empirical power law tails. The longer the infusion time the better the drug delivery to the tumor compartment is a clinical recommendation we propose.
2011, 8(2): 355-369 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.355 +[Abstract](1953) +[PDF](370.6KB)
Abstract:
We describe optimal protocols for a class of mathematical models for tumor anti-angiogenesis for the problem of minimizing the tumor volume with an a priori given amount of vessel disruptive agents. The family of models is based on a biologically validated model by Hahnfeldt et al. [9] and includes a modification by Ergun et al. [6], but also provides two new variations that interpolate the dynamics for the vascular support between these existing models. The biological reasoning for the modifications of the models will be presented and we will show that despite quite different modeling assumptions, the qualitative structure of optimal controls is robust. For all the systems in the class of models considered here, an optimal singular arc is the defining element and all the syntheses of optimal controlled trajectories are qualitatively equivalent with quantitative differences easily computed.
2011, 8(2): 371-383 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.371 +[Abstract](2337) +[PDF](769.7KB)
Abstract:
It is well known that tumor microenvironment affects tumor growth and metastasis: Tumor cells may proliferate at different rates and migrate in different patterns depending on the microenvironment in which they are embedded. There is a huge literature that deals with mathematical models of tumor growth and proliferation, in both the avascular and vascular phases. In particular, a review of the literature of avascular tumor growth (up to 2006) can be found in Lolas [8] (G. Lolas, Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 1872, 77 (2006)). In this article we report on some of our recent work. We consider two aspects, proliferation and of migration, and describe mathematical models based on in vitro experiments. Simulations of the models are in agreement with experimental results. The models can be used to generate hypotheses regarding the development of drugs which will confine tumor growth.
2011, 8(2): 385-408 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.385 +[Abstract](2062) +[PDF](460.1KB)
Abstract:
We use a periodically forced SIS epidemic model with disease induced mortality to study the combined effects of seasonal trends and death on the extinction and persistence of discretely reproducing populations. We introduce the epidemic threshold parameter, $R_0$, for predicting disease dynamics in periodic environments. Typically, $R_0<1$ implies disease extinction. However, in the presence of disease induced mortality, we extend the results of Franke and Yakubu to periodic environments and show that a small number of infectives can drive an otherwise persistent population with $R_0>1$ to extinction. Furthermore, we obtain conditions for the persistence of the total population. In addition, we use the Beverton-Holt recruitment function to show that the infective population exhibits period-doubling bifurcations route to chaos where the disease-free susceptible population lives on a 2-cycle (non-chaotic) attractor.
2011, 8(2): 409-423 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.409 +[Abstract](2478) +[PDF](7119.9KB)
Abstract:
Newtonian and generalized Newtonian mathematical models for blood flow are compared in two different reconstructions of an anatomically realistic geometry of a saccular aneurysm, obtained from rotational CTA and differing to within image resolution. The sensitivity of the flow field is sought with respect to geometry reconstruction procedure and mathematical model choice in numerical simulations.
Taking as example a patient specific intracranial aneurysm located on an outer bend under steady state simulations, it is found that the sensitivity to geometry variability is greater, but comparable, to the one of the rheological model. These sensitivities are not quantifiable a priori. The flow field exhibits a wide range of shear stresses and slow recirculation regions that emphasize the need for careful choice of constitutive models for the blood. On the other hand, the complex geometrical shape of the vessels is found to be sensitive to small scale perturbations within medical imaging resolution.
The sensitivity to mathematical modeling and geometry definition are important when performing numerical simulations from in vivo data, and should be taken into account when discussing patient specific studies since differences in wall shear stress range from 3% to 18%.
2011, 8(2): 425-443 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.425 +[Abstract](2242) +[PDF](1614.2KB)
Abstract:
The hemostatic system is a highly complex multicomponent biosystem that under normal physiologic conditions maintains the fluidity of blood. Coagulation is initiated in response to endothelial surface vascular injury or certain biochemical stimuli, by the exposure of plasma to Tissue Factor (TF), that activates platelets and the coagulation cascade, inducing clot formation, growth and lysis. In recent years considerable advances have contributed to understand this highly complex process and some mathematical and numerical models have been developed. However, mathematical models that are both rigorous and comprehensive in terms of meaningful experimental data, are not available yet. In this paper a mathematical model of coagulation and fibrinolysis in flowing blood that integrates biochemical, physiologic and rheological factors, is revisited. Three-dimensional numerical simulations are performed in an idealized stenosed blood vessel where clot formation and growth are initialized through appropriate boundary conditions on a prescribed region of the vessel wall. Stability results are obtained for a simplified version of the clot model in quiescent plasma, involving some of the most relevant enzymatic reactions that follow Michaelis-Menten kinetics, and having a continuum of equilibria.
2011, 8(2): 445-461 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.445 +[Abstract](2591) +[PDF](600.9KB)
Abstract:
The cell cycle is regulated by a large number of enzymes and transcription factors. We have developed a modular description of the cell cycle, based on a set of interleaved modular feedback loops, each leading to a cyclic behavior. The slowest loop is the E2F transcription and ubiquitination, which determines the cycling frequency of the entire cell cycle. Faster feedback loops describe the dynamics of each Cyclin by itself. Our model shows that the cell cycle progression as well as the checkpoints of the cell cycle can be understood through the interactions between the main E2F feedback loop and the driven Cyclin feedback loops. Multiple models were proposed for the cell cycle dynamics; each with differing basic mechanisms. We here propose a new generic formalism. In contrast with existing models, the proposed formalism allows a straightforward analysis and understanding of the dynamics, neglecting the details of each interaction. This model is not sensitive to small changes in the parameters used and it reproduces the observed behavior of the transcription factor E2F and different Cyclins in continuous or regulated cycling conditions. The modular description of the cell cycle resolves the gap between cyclic models, solely based on protein-protein reactions and transcription reactions based models. Beyond the explanation of existing observations, this model suggests the existence of unknown interactions, such as the need for a functional interaction between Cyclin B and retinoblastoma protein (Rb) de-phosphorylation.
2011, 8(2): 463-473 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.463 +[Abstract](2490) +[PDF](260.6KB)
Abstract:
Ticks have a unique life history including a distinct set of life stages and a single blood meal per life stage. This makes tick-host interactions more complex from a mathematical perspective. In addition, any model of these interactions must involve a significant degree of stochasticity on the individual tick level. In an attempt to quantify these relationships, I have developed an individual-based model of the interactions between ticks and their hosts as well as the transmission of tick-borne disease between the two populations. The results from this model are compared with those from previously published differential equation based population models. The findings show that the agent-based model produces significantly lower prevalence of disease in both the ticks and their hosts than what is predicted by a similar differential equation model.
2011, 8(2): 475-502 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.475 +[Abstract](2160) +[PDF](839.5KB)
Abstract:
Axiomatic modeling is ensued to provide a family of models that describe bacterial growth in the presence of phagocytes, or, more generally, prey dynamics in a large spatially homogenous eco-system. A classification of the possible bifurcation diagrams that arise in such models is presented. It is shown that other commonly used models that do not belong to this class may miss important features that are associated with the limited growth curve of the bacteria (prey) and the saturation associated with the phagocytosis (predator kill) term. Notably, these features appear at relatively low concentrations, much below the saturation range. Finally, combining this model with a model of neutrophil dynamics in the blood after chemotherapy treatments we obtain new insights regarding the development of infections under neutropenic conditions.
2011, 8(2): 503-513 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.503 +[Abstract](2698) +[PDF](351.5KB)
Abstract:
We consider a linear size-structured population model with diffusion in the size-space. Individuals are recruited into the population at arbitrary sizes. We equip the model with generalized Wentzell-Robin (or dynamic) boundary conditions. This approach allows the modelling of populations in which individuals may have distinguished physiological states. We establish existence and positivity of solutions by showing that solutions are governed by a positive quasicontractive semigroup of linear operators on the biologically relevant state space. These results are obtained by establishing dissipativity of a suitably perturbed semigroup generator. We also show that solutions of the model exhibit balanced exponential growth, that is, our model admits a finite-dimensional global attractor. In case of strictly positive fertility we are able to establish that solutions in fact exhibit asynchronous exponential growth.
2011, 8(2): 515-528 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.515 +[Abstract](2019) +[PDF](456.8KB)
Abstract:
Many membrane channels and receptors exhibit adaptive, or desensitized, response to a strong sustained input stimulus, often supported by protein activity-dependent inactivation. Adaptive response is thought to be related to various cellular functions such as homeostasis and enlargement of dynamic range by background compensation.
Here we study the quantitative relation between adaptive response and background compensation within a modeling framework. We show that any particular type of adaptive response is neither sufficient nor necessary for adaptive enlargement of dynamic range. In particular a precise adaptive response, where system activity is maintained at a constant level at steady state, does not ensure a large dynamic range neither in input signal nor in system output. A general mechanism for input dynamic range enlargement can come about from the activity-dependent modulation of protein responsiveness by multiple biochemical modification, regardless of the type of adaptive response it induces. Therefore hierarchical biochemical processes such as methylation and phosphorylation are natural candidates to induce this property in signaling systems.
2011, 8(2): 529-547 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.529 +[Abstract](2640) +[PDF](422.9KB)
Abstract:
Understanding the dynamics of human hosts and tumors is of critical importance. A mathematical model was developed by Bunimovich-Mendrazitsky et al. ([10]), who explored the immune response in bladder cancer as an effect of BCG treatment. This treatment exploits the host's own immune system to boost a response that will enable the host to rid itself of the tumor. Although this model was extensively studied using numerical simulation, no analytical results on global tumor dynamics were originally presented. In this work, we analyze stability in a mathematical model for BCG treatment of bladder cancer based on the use of quasi-normal form and stability theory. These tools are employed in the critical cases, especially when analysis of the linearized system is insufficient. Our goal is to gain a deeper insight into the BCG treatment of bladder cancer, which is based on a mathematical model and biological considerations, and thereby to bring us one step closer to the design of a relevant clinical protocol.
2011, 8(2): 549-560 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.549 +[Abstract](2186) +[PDF](487.2KB)
Abstract:
Diabetes is a condition in which the body either does not produce enough insulin, or does not properly respond to it. This causes the glucose level in blood to increase. An algorithm based on Integral High-Order Sliding Mode technique is proposed, which keeps the normal blood glucose level automatically releasing insulin into the blood. The system is highly insensitive to inevitable parametric and model uncertainties, measurement noises and small delays.
2011, 8(2): 561-573 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.561 +[Abstract](2183) +[PDF](361.6KB)
Abstract:
Mathematical modeling approaches are used to study the epidemic dynamics of seasonal influenza in Israel. The recent availability of highly resolved ten year timeseries of influenza cases provides an opportunity for modeling and estimating important epidemiological parameters in the Israeli population. A simple but well known SIR discrete-time deterministic model was fitted to consecutive epidemics allowing estimation of the initial number of susceptibles in the population $S_0$, as well as the reproductive number $R_0$ each year. The results were corroborated by implementing a stochastic model and using a maximum likelihood approach. The paper discusses the difficulties in estimating these important parameters especially when the reporting rate of influenza cases might only be known with limited accuracy, as is generally the case. In such situations invariant parameters such as the percentage of susceptibles infected, and the effective reproductive rate might be preferred, as they do not depend on reporting rate. Results are given based on the Israeli timeseries.
2011, 8(2): 575-589 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.575 +[Abstract](2346) +[PDF](377.9KB)
Abstract:
We propose some models allowing to account for relevant processes at the various scales of cancer cell migration through tissue, ranging from the receptor dynamics on the cell surface over degradation of tissue fibers by protease and soluble ligand production towards the behavior of the entire cell population.
For a genuinely mesoscopic version of these models we also provide a result on the local existence and uniqueness of a solution for all biologically relevant space dimensions.
2011, 8(2): 591-603 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.591 +[Abstract](2528) +[PDF](718.1KB)
Abstract:
In the paper we propose a new methodology in modeling of antiangiogenic treatment on the basis of well recognized model formulated by Hahnfeldt et al. in 1999. On the basis of the Hahnfeldt et al. model, with the usage of the optimal control theory, some protocols of antiangiogenic treatment were proposed. However, in our opinion the formulation of that model is valid only for the antivascular treatment, that is treatment that is focused on destroying endothelial cells. Therefore, we propose a modification of the original model which is valid in the case of the antiangiogenic treatment, that is treatment which is focused on blocking angiogenic signaling. We analyze basic mathematical properties of the proposed model and present some numerical simulations.
2011, 8(2): 605-626 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.605 +[Abstract](2291) +[PDF](2107.8KB)
Abstract:
Approximately 50% of late-stage HIV patients develop CXCR4-tropic (X4) virus in addition to CCR5-tropic (R5) virus. X4 emergence occurs with a sharp decline in CD4+ T cell counts and accelerated time to AIDS. Why this phenotypic switch to X4 occurs is not well understood. Previously, we used numerical simulations of a mathematical model to show that across much of parameter space a promising new class of antiretroviral treatments, CCR5 inhibitors, can accelerate X4 emergence and immunodeficiency. Here, we show that mathematical model to be a minimal activation-based HIV model that produces a spontaneous switch to X4 virus at a clinically-representative time point, while also matching in vivo data showing X4 and R5 coexisting and competing to infect memory CD4+ T cells. Our analysis shows that X4 avoids competitive exclusion from an initially fitter R5 virus due to X4v unique ability to productively infect nave CD4+ T cells. We further justify the generalized conditions under which this minimal model holds, implying that a phenotypic switch can even occur when the fraction of activated nave CD4+ T cells increases at a slower rate than the fraction of activated memory CD4+ T cells. We find that it is the ratio of the fractions of activated nave and memory CD4+ T cells that must increase above a threshold to produce a switch. This occurs as the concentration of CD4+ T cells drops beneath a threshold. Thus, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which increases CD4+ T cell counts and decreases cellular activation levels, inhibits X4 viral growth. However, we show here that even in the simplest dual-strain framework, competition between R5 and X4 viruses often results in accelerated X4 emergence in response to CCR5 inhibition, further highlighting the potential danger of anti-CCR5 monotherapy in multi-strain HIV infection.
2011, 8(2): 627-641 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.627 +[Abstract](2235) +[PDF](680.0KB)
Abstract:
In the human body, the appearance of tumor cells usually turns on the defensive immune mechanisms. It is therefore of great importance to understand links between HIV related immunosuppression and cancer prognosis. In the paper we present a simple model of HIV related cancer - immune system interactions in vivo which takes into account a delay describing the time needed by CD$4^+$ T lymphocyte to regenerate after eliminating a cancer cell. The model assumes also the linear response of immune system to tumor presence. We perform a mathematical analysis of the steady states stability and discuss the biological meanings of these steady states. Numerical simulations are also presented to illustrate the predictions of the model.
2011, 8(2): 643-658 doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.643 +[Abstract](2364) +[PDF](1032.4KB)
Abstract:
The bone marrow is necessary for renewal of all hematopoietic cells and critical for maintenance of a wide range of physiologic functions. Multiple human diseases result from bone marrow dysfunction. It is also the site in which liquid tumors, including leukemia and multiple myeloma, develop as well as a frequent site of metastases. Understanding the complex cellular and microenvironmental interactions that govern normal bone marrow function as well as diseases and cancers of the bone marrow would be a valuable medical advance. Our goal is the development of a spatially-explicit in silico model of the bone marrow to understand both its normal function and the evolutionary dynamics that govern the emergence of bone marrow malignancy. Here we introduce a multiscale computational model of the bone marrow that incorporates three distinct spatial scales, cell, hematopoietic subunit, whole marrow. Our results, using parameter estimates from literature, recapitulates normal bone marrow function and suggest an explanation for the fractal-like structure of trabeculae and sinuses in the marrow, which would be an optimization of the hematopoietic function in order to maximize the number of mature blood cells produced daily within the volumetric restrictions of the marrow.

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